Articles | Volume 16, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-689-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-689-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
25 Feb 2022
Research article |
| 25 Feb 2022
| 25 Feb 2022
A comparison of the stability and performance of depth-integrated ice-dynamics solvers
Department of Earth Science and Astrophysics, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Geosciences Institute CSIC-UCM, Madrid, Spain
Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Potsdam, Germany
Climate and Global Dynamics Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
Daniel Goldberg
School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
William H. Lipscomb
Climate and Global Dynamics Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
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Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Marisa Montoya, Konstantin Latychev, Alexander Robinson, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, and Jerry Mitrovica
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Daniel Moreno-Parada, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Javier Blasco, Marisa Montoya, and Alexander Robinson
The Cryosphere, 17, 2139–2156, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2139-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2139-2023, 2023
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Matteo Willeit, Andrey Ganopolski, Alexander Robinson, and Neil R. Edwards
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 5905–5948, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-5905-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-5905-2022, 2022
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In this paper we present the climate component of the newly developed fast Earth system model CLIMBER-X. It has a horizontal resolution of 5°x5° and is designed to simulate the evolution of the Earth system on temporal scales ranging from decades to >100 000 years. CLIMBER-X is available as open-source code and is expected to be a useful tool for studying past climate changes and for the investigation of the long-term future evolution of the climate.
Andreas Born and Alexander Robinson
The Cryosphere, 15, 4539–4556, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4539-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4539-2021, 2021
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Ice penetrating radar reflections from the Greenland ice sheet are the best available record of past accumulation and how these layers have been deformed over time by the flow of ice. Direct simulations of this archive hold great promise for improving our models and for uncovering details of ice sheet dynamics that neither models nor data could achieve alone. We present the first three-dimensional ice sheet model that explicitly simulates individual layers of accumulation and how they deform.
Daniel N. Goldberg, Paul R. Holland, and Kaitlin A. Naughten
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3779, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3779, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
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Antarctica’s Amundsen Sea glaciers are major contributors to sea-level rise. Using multi-century, high-resolution coupled ice–ocean simulations of the region, we show that 21st century predictions depend strongly on how ice-sheet models are initialized, especially for Thwaites Glacier. By the 22nd century, however, ocean warming becomes the dominant driver, leading to much faster ice loss under high-emissions scenarios, highlighting the importance of improving coupled climate–ice models.
Lucía Gutiérrez-González, Ilaria Tabone, Alexander Robinson, Jorge Álvarez-Solas, Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Britta Grusdt, and Marisa Montoya
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3331, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3331, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Climate of the Past (CP).
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The last deglaciation offers insights into ice-climate interactions, as paleoclimatic records document the retreat of ice sheets through a period of major climate changes. However, current ice-sheet models have difficulties reproducing key aspects of the Greenland Ice Sheet evolution. We present a new reconstruction based on an ensemble of 3000 simulations evaluated against observational constraints, improving upon previous studies, and we identify the parameters controlling model performance.
Britta Grusdt, Mahé Perrette, and Alexander Robinson
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2320, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2320, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Earth System Dynamics (ESD).
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We provide practical guidelines for producing weighted ensembles of climate models. We distinguish between two approaches, the individual- and the ensemble performance weighting approach, and formulate both in probabilistic terms, making the underlying assumptions transparent. Using constructed examples, we show the advantage of the ensemble weighting approach to account for model co-dependencies and examine how methodological choices affect the climate projections of the weighted ensemble.
Kolja Kypke, Marisa Montoya, Alexander Robinson, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, and Peter Ditlevsen
Earth Syst. Dynam., 17, 769–794, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-17-769-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-17-769-2026, 2026
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This model study sets out to investigate how the collapse of the Greenland ice sheet to a virtually ice-free state due to increasing temperatures depends on the rate of this increase. We find oscillations in ice volume on millennial timescales that impact the time it takes before the ice sheet collapses, concluding that there is a mode of deterministic chaos internal to the ice sheet dynamics.
Laure Moinat, Florian Franziskakis, Christian Vérard, Daniel Nathan Goldberg, and Maura Brunetti
Geosci. Model Dev., 19, 4357–4384, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-4357-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-4357-2026, 2026
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We describe a new tool, BIG-MITgcm, that consistently reproduces the global-scale dynamics of the ocean, atmosphere, vegetation and ice on multimillennial timescales at a low computational cost. Evaluated against observations and state-of-the-art Earth system models, it includes asynchronous coupling to models of vegetation, hydrology and a newly developed global-scale ice sheet. Using arbitrary continental configurations, it enables studies of past and present climates on Earth or exoplanets.
James R. Jordan, Frank Pattyn, Daniel Abele, Torsten Albrecht, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Jowan M. Barnes, Tijn Berends, Jorge A. Bernales, Javier Blasco, Gong Cheng, Youngmin Choi, Stephen L. Cornford, Cruz Garcia-Molina, Fabien Gillet-Chaulet, G. Hilmar Gudmundsson, Angelika Humbert, Gunter R. Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, Marisa Montoya, Daniel Moreno-Parada, Mathieu Morlighem, Tyler Pelle, Alexander Robinson, Martin Rückamp, Hélène Seroussi, Yanmei Tian, Luisa Wagner, Roderick S. W. van de Wal, Liyun Zhao, and Thomas Zwinger
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-1962, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-1962, 2026
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Jean-Francois Lemieux, Damien Ringeisen, Martin Losch, William Lipscomb, and Jinro Ukita
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-1362, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-1362, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
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The sea ice cover in the Arctic and in the Southern Ocean strongly varies spatially due to the formation of leads and pressure ridges. Leads and pressure ridges are formed when sea ice fails because forces inside the ice cover reach critical values. This work describes how the representation of leads and ridges in sea ice models should be modified when different critical forces are used.
Jaime Otero, Daniel Goldberg, Peter Nienow, and Yefan Wang
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2298, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2298, 2026
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As climate change creates new lakes at the front of retreating glaciers, these ice bodies often accelerate and lose mass more quickly. We used a computer model to study this process at an Icelandic glacier. Our results show that thinning ice is the main driver for recent acceleration, with 37 % of the total ice loss resulting from the presence of the lake. These findings imply that as lakes grow globally, glaciers could vanish more rapidly than predicted, enhancing the rate of sea level rise.
Claire K. Yung, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Alistair Adcroft, Christopher Y. S. Bull, Jan De Rydt, Michael S. Dinniman, Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Daniel Goldberg, David E. Gwyther, Robert Hallberg, Matthew Harrison, Tore Hattermann, David M. Holland, Denise Holland, Paul R. Holland, James R. Jordan, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Kazuya Kusahara, Gustavo Marques, Pierre Mathiot, Dimitris Menemenlis, Adele K. Morrison, Yoshihiro Nakayama, Olga Sergienko, Robin S. Smith, Alon Stern, Ralph Timmermann, and Qin Zhou
The Cryosphere, 20, 2053–2088, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2053-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2053-2026, 2026
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The second Ice Shelf-Ocean Model Intercomparison Project, ISOMIP+, compares 12 ice shelf-ocean models with a common, idealised, static configuration, aiming to assess inter-model variability. Models show similar basal melt rate patterns, ocean profiles and circulation but differ in ice-ocean boundary layer properties. Ice-ocean boundary layer representation is a key area for future work, as are realistic-domain ice sheet-ocean model intercomparisons.
Nils Bochow, Philipp Hess, and Alexander Robinson
The Cryosphere, 20, 1841–1866, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1841-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1841-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a fast, physics-guided machine-learning method that downscales coarse climate fields to fine resolution while enforcing conservation of large-scale totals. Trained on regional climate simulations and driven by Earth system model output, it handles extremes and outperforms linear interpolation, providing realistic, high-resolution forcing for ice-sheet models and improving projections of Greenland’s sea-level contribution.
Sergio Pérez-Montero, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Daniel Moreno-Parada, Alexander Robinson, and Marisa Montoya
Clim. Past, 22, 625–646, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-22-625-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-22-625-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
Almost 3 million years ago, the planet began to experience a succession of cold and warm periods every 40,000 years. However, about 1 million years ago, they began to occur every 100,000 years. In this paper we explore how the change in the basal velocity of the ice sheets could have produced this change in behavior. On the other hand, we also see that in our model, decreasing in time the sensitivity of snowfall to temperature is also an effective mechanism with which to reproduce the records.
Gillian M. A. Smith, Daniel N. Goldberg, Guillaume Jouvet, James R. Maddison, and Hamish D. Pritchard
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-788, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-788, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
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We estimate the thickness of a large glacier in the Himalaya, using recently available thickness measurements and a computational model which uses higher-order physics to match estimated thickness with satellite-observed velocity. Our velocity inversion achieves similar accuracy to leading thickness estimates, while thickness-constrained inversions show increased accuracy, but limited interpolative power. We make recommendations for future measurement locations and for choosing model parameters.
Brad Reed, Jan De Rydt, Kaitlin A. Naughten, and Daniel N. Goldberg
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-931, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-931, 2026
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Melting beneath Antarctic ice shelves drives ice loss and raises sea levels, but the computer models we use to predict this are poorly constrained. We improved how these models are set up by using multiple real-world observations of ice thinning and glacier speed, rather than melt rates alone. This better captures how the ice and ocean interact. Our projections show this approach adds 14 mm of extra sea-level rise by 2100, which is more than switching to a warmer climate scenario alone.
Antonio Juarez-Martinez, Alexander Robinson, Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Javier Blasco, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, and Marisa Montoya
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-248, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-248, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
Tidal-water intrusions can cause warm ocean water to extend beneath grounded Antarctic ice, increasing submarine melting beyond the grounding line. Here, a new parameterization representing this effect is introduced and tested in the Yelmo ice-sheet model, revealing that tides could amplify ice loss and sea-level rise. This new parameterization shows good agreement with inferred grounding zones.
Tim van den Akker, William H. Lipscomb, Gunter R. Leguy, Willem Jan van de Berg, and Roderik S. W. van de Wal
The Cryosphere, 20, 1405–1425, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1405-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1405-2026, 2026
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The Antarctic Ice Sheet is currently thinning, especially at major outlet glaciers. Including present-day ice thinning rates in models is a modeller's choice and can affect future projections. This study quantifies the impact of current imbalance on forced future projections, revealing strong regional and short-term (up to 2100) effects when these mass change rates are included.
Tim van den Akker, William H. Lipscomb, Gunter R. Leguy, Willem Jan van de Berg, and Roderik S. W. van de Wal
The Cryosphere, 20, 1217–1235, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1217-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1217-2026, 2026
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Ice sheet models to simulate future sea level rise require parameterizations, like for the friction at the bedrock. Studies have quantified the effect of using different parameterizations, and some have concluded that projections are sensitive to the choice of the specific parameterization. In this study, we show that you can make an ice sheet model sensitive to the basal friction parameterization, and that for different modellers choices you can also make the model insensitive to this.
Patrick Schmitt, Fabien Maussion, Daniel N. Goldberg, and Philipp Gregor
Geosci. Model Dev., 19, 1301–1319, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-1301-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-1301-2026, 2026
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To improve large-scale understanding of glaciers, we developed a new data assimilation method that integrates available observations in a dynamically consistent way, while taking their timestamps into account. It is designed to flexibly include new glacier data as it becomes available. We tested the method with idealized experiments and found promising results in terms of accuracy and efficiency, showing strong potential for real-world applications.
Lucía Gutiérrez-González, Alexander Robinson, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Ilaria Tabone, Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Daniel Moreno-Parada, and Marisa Montoya
The Cryosphere, 20, 1139–1162, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1139-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1139-2026, 2026
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The Greenland ice sheet is considered a tipping element: if temperatures exceed its threshold, it would transition to a virtually ice-free state and the ice losses could be irreversible on very long timescales. We study its stability across the full range of glacial-interglacial temperatures, as well as those expected in coming centuries. We find a future critical threshold between 1.5-2ºC of global warming, another under colder climates, and persistent hysteresis across the full range of study.
Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Alexander Robinson, Lucía Gutiérrez-González, and Marisa Montoya
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-6566, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-6566, 2026
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The Antarctic Ice Sheet is subject to hysteresis, i.e. if ice is lost due to warming, a comparatively larger cooling is needed to recover the original state. Here, we show that this effect might be larger than previously assumed, with volume differences of as much as 35 metres of sea-level equivalent between retreat and regrowth. Due to the large population density along the coasts, this stresses the importance of mitigating future sea-level rise, since adapting to it will likely be much harder.
Jowan M. Barnes, G. Hilmar Gudmundsson, Daniel N. Goldberg, and Sainan Sun
The Cryosphere, 20, 777–790, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-777-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-777-2026, 2026
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Calving is where ice breaks off the front of glaciers. It has not been included widely in modelling as it is difficult to represent. We use our ice flow model to investigate the effects of calving floating ice shelves in West Antarctica. More calving leads to more ice loss and greater sea level rise, with local differences due to the shape of the bedrock. We find that ocean forcing and calving should be considered equally when trying to improve how models represent the real world.
Hamish D. Pritchard, Edward C. King, David J. Goodger, Douglas Boyle, Daniel N. Goldberg, Beatriz Recinos, Andrew Orr, and Dhananjay Regmi
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 18, 199–217, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-199-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-199-2026, 2026
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We present a new and uniquely extensive dataset of glacier thickness from the Khumbu Himal around Mount Everest that stretches for 119 km, doubling the extent of thickness measurements in High Mountain Asia. Such measurements are key inputs for models that estimate how much ice is stored on the whole mountain range scale and for models that predict how this ice reserve will change in future, and what impact this will have on water supply for the large populations living downstream.
Heiko Goelzer, Petra M. Langebroek, Andreas Born, Stefan Hofer, Konstanze Haubner, Michele Petrini, Gunter Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, and Katherine Thayer-Calder
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 7853–7867, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-7853-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-7853-2025, 2025
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On the backdrop of observed accelerating ice sheet mass loss over the last few decades, there is growing interest in the role of ice sheet changes in global climate projections. In this regard, we have coupled an Earth system model with an ice sheet model and have produced an initial set of climate projections including an interactive coupling with a dynamic Greenland ice sheet.
Johanna Beckmann, Ronja Reese, Felicity S. McCormack, Sue Cook, Lawrence Bird, Dawid Gwyther, Daniel Richards, Matthias Scheiter, Yu Wang, Hélène Seroussi, Ayako Abe‐Ouchi, Torsten Albrecht, Jorge Alvarez‐Solas, Xylar S. Asay‐Davis, Jean‐Baptiste Barre, Constantijn J. Berends, Jorge Bernales, Javier Blasco, Justine Caillet, David M. Chandler, Violaine Coulon, Richard Cullather, Christophe Dumas, Benjamin K. Galton‐Fenzi, Julius Garbe, Fabien Gillet‐Chaulet, Rupert Gladstone, Heiko Goelzer, Nicholas R. Golledge, Ralf Greve, G. Hilmar Gudmundsson, Holly Kyeore Han, Trevor R. Hillebrand, Matthew J. Hoffman, Philippe Huybrechts, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Ann Kristin Klose, Petra M. Langebroek, Gunter R. Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, Daniel P. Lowry, Pierre Mathiot, Marisa Montoya, Mathieu Morlighem, Sophie Nowicki, Frank Pattyn, Antony J. Payne, Tyler Pelle, Aurélien Quiquet, Alexander Robinson, Leopekka Saraste, Erika G. Simon, Sainan Sun, Jake P. Twarog, Luke D. Trusel, Benoit Urruty, Jonas Van Breedam, Roderik S. W. van de Wal, Chen Zhao, and Thomas Zwinger
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4069, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4069, 2025
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Antarctica holds enough ice to raise sea levels by many meters, but its future is uncertain. Warm ocean water melts ice shelves from below, letting inland ice flow faster into the sea. By 2300, Antarctica could add 0.6–4.4 m to sea levels. Our study identifies two key factors—how strongly shelves melt and how the ice responds. These explain much of the range, and refining them in models may improve future predictions.
Samar Minallah, William H. Lipscomb, Gunter Leguy, and Harry Zekollari
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 5467–5486, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-5467-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-5467-2025, 2025
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We developed a new modeling framework within an Earth system model to study mountain glacier evolution under different climate scenarios, applied here to the European Alps. Substantial Alpine glacier mass loss is projected under current climate conditions, with near-total loss under further warming. This is the first use of a 3D, higher-order ice-flow model for regional glacier simulations, enabling assessment of coupled land ice–Earth system processes.
Daniel Moreno-Parada, Alexander Robinson, Marisa Montoya, and Jorge Alvarez-Solas
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 3895–3919, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-3895-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-3895-2025, 2025
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We introduce Nix, an ice-sheet model designed for understanding how large masses of ice behave. Nix is a computer programme that simulates the movement and temperature evolution in ice sheets. It helps us study how ice sheets respond to changes in the atmosphere and ocean. We found that ice temperatures play an essential role in determining the motion and stability of ice sheets. Nix is a useful tool for learning how climate change affects polar ice sheets.
Sergio Pérez-Montero, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Daniel Moreno-Parada, Alexander Robinson, and Marisa Montoya
Earth Syst. Dynam., 16, 915–937, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-915-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-915-2025, 2025
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The climate of the last 3 Myr has varied between cold and warm periods. Numerous independent mechanisms have been proposed to explain this; however, no effort has been made to study their competing effects. Here we present a simple but physically motivated model that includes these mechanisms in a modular way. We identify ice-sheet dynamics and lithosphere displacement as main triggers, but reproducing the climate records additionally requires the natural darkening of ice.
Ricarda Winkelmann, Donovan P. Dennis, Jonathan F. Donges, Sina Loriani, Ann Kristin Klose, Jesse F. Abrams, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Torsten Albrecht, David Armstrong McKay, Sebastian Bathiany, Javier Blasco Navarro, Victor Brovkin, Eleanor Burke, Gokhan Danabasoglu, Reik V. Donner, Markus Drüke, Goran Georgievski, Heiko Goelzer, Anna B. Harper, Gabriele Hegerl, Marina Hirota, Aixue Hu, Laura C. Jackson, Colin Jones, Hyungjun Kim, Torben Koenigk, Peter Lawrence, Timothy M. Lenton, Hannah Liddy, José Licón-Saláiz, Maxence Menthon, Marisa Montoya, Jan Nitzbon, Sophie Nowicki, Bette Otto-Bliesner, Francesco Pausata, Stefan Rahmstorf, Karoline Ramin, Alexander Robinson, Johan Rockström, Anastasia Romanou, Boris Sakschewski, Christina Schädel, Steven Sherwood, Robin S. Smith, Norman J. Steinert, Didier Swingedouw, Matteo Willeit, Wilbert Weijer, Richard Wood, Klaus Wyser, and Shuting Yang
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1899, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1899, 2025
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The Tipping Points Modelling Intercomparison Project (TIPMIP) is an international collaborative effort to systematically assess tipping point risks in the Earth system using state-of-the-art coupled and stand-alone domain models. TIPMIP will provide a first global atlas of potential tipping dynamics, respective critical thresholds and key uncertainties, generating an important building block towards a comprehensive scientific basis for policy- and decision-making.
William H. Lipscomb, David Behar, and Monica Ainhorn Morrison
The Cryosphere, 19, 793–803, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-793-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-793-2025, 2025
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As communities try to adapt to climate change, they look for "actionable science" that can inform decision-making. There are risks in relying on novel results that are not yet accepted by the science community. We propose a practical criterion for determining which scientific claims are actionable. We show how premature acceptance of sea-level-rise predictions can lead to confusion and backtracking, and we suggest best practices for communication between scientists and adaptation planners.
Tim van den Akker, William H. Lipscomb, Gunter R. Leguy, Jorjo Bernales, Constantijn J. Berends, Willem Jan van de Berg, and Roderik S. W. van de Wal
The Cryosphere, 19, 283–301, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-283-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-283-2025, 2025
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In this study, we present an improved way of representing ice thickness change rates in an ice sheet model. We apply this method using two ice sheet models of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. We found that the two largest outlet glaciers on the Antarctic Ice Sheet, Thwaites Glacier and Pine Island Glacier, will collapse without further warming on a timescale of centuries. This would cause a sea level rise of about 1.2 m globally.
Michele Petrini, Meike D. W. Scherrenberg, Laura Muntjewerf, Miren Vizcaino, Raymond Sellevold, Gunter R. Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, and Heiko Goelzer
The Cryosphere, 19, 63–81, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-63-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-63-2025, 2025
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Anthropogenic warming is causing accelerated Greenland ice sheet melt. Here, we use a computer model to understand how prolonged warming and ice melt could threaten ice sheet stability. We find a threshold beyond which Greenland will lose more than 80 % of its ice over several thousand years, due to the interaction of surface and solid-Earth processes. Nearly complete Greenland ice sheet melt occurs when the ice margin disconnects from a region of high elevation in western Greenland.
Mira Berdahl, Gunter R. Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, Bette L. Otto-Bliesner, Esther C. Brady, Robert A. Tomas, Nathan M. Urban, Ian Miller, Harriet Morgan, and Eric J. Steig
Clim. Past, 20, 2349–2371, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-2349-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-2349-2024, 2024
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Studying climate conditions near the Antarctic ice sheet (AIS) during Earth’s past warm periods informs us about how global warming may influence AIS ice loss. Using a global climate model, we investigate climate conditions near the AIS during the Last Interglacial (129 to 116 kyr ago), a period with warmer global temperatures and higher sea level than today. We identify the orbital and freshwater forcings that could cause ice loss and probe the mechanisms that lead to warmer climate conditions.
Therese Rieckh, Andreas Born, Alexander Robinson, Robert Law, and Gerrit Gülle
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 6987–7000, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6987-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6987-2024, 2024
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We present the open-source model ELSA, which simulates the internal age structure of large ice sheets. It creates layers of snow accumulation at fixed times during the simulation, which are used to model the internal stratification of the ice sheet. Together with reconstructed isochrones from radiostratigraphy data, ELSA can be used to assess ice sheet models and to improve their parameterization. ELSA can be used coupled to an ice sheet model or forced with its output.
Antonio Juarez-Martinez, Javier Blasco, Alexander Robinson, Marisa Montoya, and Jorge Alvarez-Solas
The Cryosphere, 18, 4257–4283, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4257-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4257-2024, 2024
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We present sea level projections for Antarctica in the context of ISMIP6-2300 with several forcings but extend the simulations to 2500, showing that more than 3 m of sea level contribution could be reached. We also test the sensitivity on a basal melting parameter and determine the timing of the loss of ice in the west region. All the simulations were carried out with the ice sheet model Yelmo.
Daniel Moreno-Parada, Alexander Robinson, Marisa Montoya, and Jorge Alvarez-Solas
The Cryosphere, 18, 4215–4232, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4215-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4215-2024, 2024
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Our study tries to understand how the ice temperature evolves in a large mass as in the case of Antarctica. We found a relation that tells us the ice temperature at any point. These results are important because they also determine how the ice moves. In general, ice moves due to slow deformation (as if pouring honey from a jar). Nevertheless, in some regions the ice base warms enough and melts. The liquid water then serves as lubricant and the ice slides and its velocity increases rapidly.
Jean-François Lemieux, William H. Lipscomb, Anthony Craig, David A. Bailey, Elizabeth C. Hunke, Philippe Blain, Till A. S. Rasmussen, Mats Bentsen, Frédéric Dupont, David Hebert, and Richard Allard
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 6703–6724, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6703-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6703-2024, 2024
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We present the latest version of the CICE model. It solves equations that describe the dynamics and the growth and melt of sea ice. To do so, the domain is divided into grid cells and variables are positioned at specific locations in the cells. A new implementation (C-grid) is presented, with the velocity located on cell edges. Compared to the previous B-grid, the C-grid allows for a natural coupling with some oceanic and atmospheric models. It also allows for ice transport in narrow channels.
Javier Blasco, Ilaria Tabone, Daniel Moreno-Parada, Alexander Robinson, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Frank Pattyn, and Marisa Montoya
Clim. Past, 20, 1919–1938, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1919-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1919-2024, 2024
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In this study, we assess Antarctic tipping points which may had been crossed during the mid-Pliocene Warm Period. For this, we use data from the PlioMIP2 ensemble. Additionally, we investigate various sources of uncertainty, like ice dynamics and bedrock configuration. Our research significantly enhances our comprehension of Antarctica's response to a warming climate, shedding light on potential future tipping points that may be surpassed.
Jan Swierczek-Jereczek, Marisa Montoya, Konstantin Latychev, Alexander Robinson, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, and Jerry Mitrovica
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 5263–5290, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-5263-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-5263-2024, 2024
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Ice sheets present a thickness of a few kilometres, leading to a vertical deformation of the crust of up to a kilometre. This process depends on properties of the solid Earth, which can be regionally very different. We propose a model that accounts for this often-ignored heterogeneity and run 100 000 simulation years in minutes. Thus, the evolution of ice sheets is modeled with better accuracy, which is critical for a good mitigation of climate change and, in particular, sea-level rise.
David T. Bett, Alexander T. Bradley, C. Rosie Williams, Paul R. Holland, Robert J. Arthern, and Daniel N. Goldberg
The Cryosphere, 18, 2653–2675, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2653-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2653-2024, 2024
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A new ice–ocean model simulates future ice sheet evolution in the Amundsen Sea sector of Antarctica. Substantial ice retreat is simulated in all scenarios, with some retreat still occurring even with no future ocean melting. The future of small "pinning points" (islands of ice that contact the seabed) is an important control on this retreat. Ocean melting is crucial in causing these features to go afloat, providing the link by which climate change may affect this sector's sea level contribution.
Tong Zhang, William Colgan, Agnes Wansing, Anja Løkkegaard, Gunter Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, and Cunde Xiao
The Cryosphere, 18, 387–402, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-387-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-387-2024, 2024
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The geothermal heat flux determines how much heat enters from beneath the ice sheet, and thus impacts the temperature and the flow of the ice sheet. In this study we investigate how much geothermal heat flux impacts the initialization of the Greenland ice sheet. We use the Community Ice Sheet Model with two different initialization methods. We find a non-trivial influence of the choice of heat flow boundary conditions on the ice sheet initializations for further designs of ice sheet modeling.
Hélène Seroussi, Vincent Verjans, Sophie Nowicki, Antony J. Payne, Heiko Goelzer, William H. Lipscomb, Ayako Abe-Ouchi, Cécile Agosta, Torsten Albrecht, Xylar Asay-Davis, Alice Barthel, Reinhard Calov, Richard Cullather, Christophe Dumas, Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Rupert Gladstone, Nicholas R. Golledge, Jonathan M. Gregory, Ralf Greve, Tore Hattermann, Matthew J. Hoffman, Angelika Humbert, Philippe Huybrechts, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Thomas Kleiner, Eric Larour, Gunter R. Leguy, Daniel P. Lowry, Chistopher M. Little, Mathieu Morlighem, Frank Pattyn, Tyler Pelle, Stephen F. Price, Aurélien Quiquet, Ronja Reese, Nicole-Jeanne Schlegel, Andrew Shepherd, Erika Simon, Robin S. Smith, Fiammetta Straneo, Sainan Sun, Luke D. Trusel, Jonas Van Breedam, Peter Van Katwyk, Roderik S. W. van de Wal, Ricarda Winkelmann, Chen Zhao, Tong Zhang, and Thomas Zwinger
The Cryosphere, 17, 5197–5217, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5197-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5197-2023, 2023
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Mass loss from Antarctica is a key contributor to sea level rise over the 21st century, and the associated uncertainty dominates sea level projections. We highlight here the Antarctic glaciers showing the largest changes and quantify the main sources of uncertainty in their future evolution using an ensemble of ice flow models. We show that on top of Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers, Totten and Moscow University glaciers show rapid changes and a strong sensitivity to warmer ocean conditions.
Beatriz Recinos, Daniel Goldberg, James R. Maddison, and Joe Todd
The Cryosphere, 17, 4241–4266, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4241-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4241-2023, 2023
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Ice sheet models generate forecasts of ice sheet mass loss, a significant contributor to sea level rise; thus, capturing the complete range of possible projections of mass loss is of critical societal importance. Here we add to data assimilation techniques commonly used in ice sheet modelling (a Bayesian inference approach) and fully characterize calibration uncertainty. We successfully propagate this type of error onto sea level rise projections of three ice streams in West Antarctica.
René R. Wijngaard, Adam R. Herrington, William H. Lipscomb, Gunter R. Leguy, and Soon-Il An
The Cryosphere, 17, 3803–3828, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3803-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3803-2023, 2023
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We evaluate the ability of the Community Earth System Model (CESM2) to simulate cryospheric–hydrological variables, such as glacier surface mass balance (SMB), over High Mountain Asia (HMA) by using a global grid (~111 km) with regional refinement (~7 km) over HMA. Evaluations of two different simulations show that climatological biases are reduced, and glacier SMB is improved (but still too negative) by modifying the snow and glacier model and using an updated glacier cover dataset.
Daniel Moreno-Parada, Jorge Alvarez-Solas, Javier Blasco, Marisa Montoya, and Alexander Robinson
The Cryosphere, 17, 2139–2156, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2139-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2139-2023, 2023
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We have reconstructed the Laurentide Ice Sheet, located in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum (21 000 years ago). The absence of direct measurements raises a number of uncertainties. Here we study the impact of different physical laws that describe the friction as the ice slides over its base. We found that the Laurentide Ice Sheet is closest to prior reconstructions when the basal friction takes into account whether the base is frozen or thawed during its motion.
Constantijn J. Berends, Roderik S. W. van de Wal, Tim van den Akker, and William H. Lipscomb
The Cryosphere, 17, 1585–1600, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1585-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1585-2023, 2023
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The rate at which the Antarctic ice sheet will melt because of anthropogenic climate change is uncertain. Part of this uncertainty stems from processes occurring beneath the ice, such as the way the ice slides over the underlying bedrock.
Inversion methodsattempt to use observations of the ice-sheet surface to calculate how these sliding processes work. We show that such methods cannot fully solve this problem, so a substantial uncertainty still remains in projections of sea-level rise.
Mira Berdahl, Gunter Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, Nathan M. Urban, and Matthew J. Hoffman
The Cryosphere, 17, 1513–1543, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1513-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1513-2023, 2023
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Contributions to future sea level from the Antarctic Ice Sheet remain poorly constrained. One reason is that ice sheet model initialization methods can have significant impacts on how the ice sheet responds to future forcings. We investigate the impacts of two key parameters used during model initialization. We find that these parameter choices alone can impact multi-century sea level rise by up to 2 m, emphasizing the need to carefully consider these choices for sea level rise predictions.
Helen Ockenden, Robert G. Bingham, Andrew Curtis, and Daniel Goldberg
The Cryosphere, 16, 3867–3887, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3867-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3867-2022, 2022
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Hills and valleys hidden under the ice of Thwaites Glacier have an impact on ice flow and future ice loss, but there are not many three-dimensional observations of their location or size. We apply a mathematical theory to new high-resolution observations of the ice surface to predict the bed topography beneath the ice. There is a good correlation with ice-penetrating radar observations. The method may be useful in areas with few direct observations or as a further constraint for other methods.
Matteo Willeit, Andrey Ganopolski, Alexander Robinson, and Neil R. Edwards
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 5905–5948, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-5905-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-5905-2022, 2022
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In this paper we present the climate component of the newly developed fast Earth system model CLIMBER-X. It has a horizontal resolution of 5°x5° and is designed to simulate the evolution of the Earth system on temporal scales ranging from decades to >100 000 years. CLIMBER-X is available as open-source code and is expected to be a useful tool for studying past climate changes and for the investigation of the long-term future evolution of the climate.
Adrian K. Turner, William H. Lipscomb, Elizabeth C. Hunke, Douglas W. Jacobsen, Nicole Jeffery, Darren Engwirda, Todd D. Ringler, and Jonathan D. Wolfe
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 3721–3751, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3721-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3721-2022, 2022
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We present the dynamical core of the MPAS-Seaice model, which uses a mesh consisting of a Voronoi tessellation with polygonal cells. Such a mesh allows variable mesh resolution in different parts of the domain and the focusing of computational resources in regions of interest. We describe the velocity solver and tracer transport schemes used and examine errors generated by the model in both idealized and realistic test cases and examine the computational efficiency of the model.
Andreas Born and Alexander Robinson
The Cryosphere, 15, 4539–4556, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4539-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4539-2021, 2021
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Ice penetrating radar reflections from the Greenland ice sheet are the best available record of past accumulation and how these layers have been deformed over time by the flow of ice. Direct simulations of this archive hold great promise for improving our models and for uncovering details of ice sheet dynamics that neither models nor data could achieve alone. We present the first three-dimensional ice sheet model that explicitly simulates individual layers of accumulation and how they deform.
Conrad P. Koziol, Joe A. Todd, Daniel N. Goldberg, and James R. Maddison
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 5843–5861, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-5843-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-5843-2021, 2021
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Sea level change due to the loss of ice sheets presents great risk for coastal communities. Models are used to forecast ice loss, but their evolution depends strongly on properties which are hidden from observation and must be inferred from satellite observations. Common methods for doing so do not allow for quantification of the uncertainty inherent or how it will affect forecasts. We provide a framework for quantifying how this
initialization uncertaintyaffects ice loss forecasts.
Gunter R. Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, and Xylar S. Asay-Davis
The Cryosphere, 15, 3229–3253, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3229-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3229-2021, 2021
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We present numerical features of the Community Ice Sheet Model in representing ocean termini glaciers. Using idealized test cases, we show that applying melt in a partly grounded cell is beneficial, in contrast to recent studies. We confirm that parameterizing partly grounded cells yields accurate ice sheet representation at a grid resolution of ~2 km (arguably 4 km), allowing ice sheet simulations at a continental scale. The choice of basal friction law also influences the ice flow.
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Short summary
Here we investigate the numerical stability of several commonly used methods in order to determine which of them are capable of resolving the complex physics of the ice flow and are also computationally efficient. We find that the so-called DIVA solver outperforms the others. Its representation of the physics is consistent with more complex methods, while it remains computationally efficient at high resolution.
Here we investigate the numerical stability of several commonly used methods in order to...
