Articles | Volume 16, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-87-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-87-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
06 Jan 2022
Research article |
| 06 Jan 2022
| 06 Jan 2022
Characterizing tundra snow sub-pixel variability to improve brightness temperature estimation in satellite SWE retrievals
Julien Meloche
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Centre d'Applications et de Recherche en Télédétection,
Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, J1K 2R1, Canada
Centre d'études Nordiques, Université Laval, Québec, G1V
0A6, Canada
Alexandre Langlois
Centre d'Applications et de Recherche en Télédétection,
Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, J1K 2R1, Canada
Centre d'études Nordiques, Université Laval, Québec, G1V
0A6, Canada
Nick Rutter
Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Northumbria
University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
Alain Royer
Centre d'Applications et de Recherche en Télédétection,
Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, J1K 2R1, Canada
Centre d'études Nordiques, Université Laval, Québec, G1V
0A6, Canada
Josh King
Environment and Climate Change Canada, Climate Research Division,
Toronto, M3H 5T4, Canada
Branden Walker
Cold Regions Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo,
N2L 3C5, Canada
Philip Marsh
Cold Regions Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo,
N2L 3C5, Canada
Evan J. Wilcox
Cold Regions Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo,
N2L 3C5, Canada
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Alex Mavrovic, Renato Pardo Lara, Aaron Berg, François Demontoux, Alain Royer, and Alexandre Roy
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Nataniel M. Holtzman, Leander D. L. Anderegg, Simon Kraatz, Alex Mavrovic, Oliver Sonnentag, Christoforos Pappas, Michael H. Cosh, Alexandre Langlois, Tarendra Lakhankar, Derek Tesser, Nicholas Steiner, Andreas Colliander, Alexandre Roy, and Alexandra G. Konings
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Joshua King, Stephen Howell, Mike Brady, Peter Toose, Chris Derksen, Christian Haas, and Justin Beckers
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Inge Grünberg, Evan J. Wilcox, Simon Zwieback, Philip Marsh, and Julia Boike
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David M. W. Pritchard, Nathan Forsythe, Greg O'Donnell, Hayley J. Fowler, and Nick Rutter
The Cryosphere, 14, 1225–1244, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1225-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1225-2020, 2020
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The Cryosphere, 13, 3077–3091, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3077-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3077-2019, 2019
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Alex Mavrovic, Alexandre Roy, Alain Royer, Bilal Filali, François Boone, Christoforos Pappas, and Oliver Sonnentag
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Ron Kwok, Nathan T. Kurtz, Ludovic Brucker, Alvaro Ivanoff, Thomas Newman, Sinead L. Farrell, Joshua King, Stephen Howell, Melinda A. Webster, John Paden, Carl Leuschen, Joseph A. MacGregor, Jacqueline Richter-Menge, Jeremy Harbeck, and Mark Tschudi
The Cryosphere, 11, 2571–2593, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2571-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2571-2017, 2017
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Since 2009, the ultra-wideband snow radar on Operation IceBridge has acquired data in annual campaigns conducted during the Arctic and Antarctic springs. Existing snow depth retrieval algorithms differ in the way the air–snow and snow–ice interfaces are detected and localized in the radar returns and in how the system limitations are addressed. Here, we assess five retrieval algorithms by comparisons with field measurements, ground-based campaigns, and analyzed fields of snow depth.
Sabrina Marx, Katharina Anders, Sofia Antonova, Inga Beck, Julia Boike, Philip Marsh, Moritz Langer, and Bernhard Höfle
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2017-49, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2017-49, 2017
Revised manuscript has not been submitted
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Global climate warming causes permafrost to warm and thaw, and, consequently, to release the carbon into the atmosphere. Terrestrial laser scanning is evaluated and current methods are extended in the context of monitoring subsidence in Arctic permafrost regions. The extracted information is important to gain a deeper understanding of permafrost-related subsidence processes and provides highly accurate ground-truth data which is necessary for further developing area-wide monitoring methods.
Yann Blanchard, Alain Royer, Norman T. O'Neill, David D. Turner, and Edwin W. Eloranta
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 10, 2129–2147, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-2129-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-2129-2017, 2017
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Peter Toose, Alexandre Roy, Frederick Solheim, Chris Derksen, Tom Watts, Alain Royer, and Anne Walker
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 6, 39–51, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-6-39-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-6-39-2017, 2017
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This study looks at a wide range of options for simulating sensor signals for satellite monitoring of water stored as snow, though an ensemble of 1323 coupled snow evolution and microwave scattering models. The greatest improvements will be made with better computer simulations of how the snow microstructure changes, followed by how the microstructure scatters radiation at microwave frequencies. Snow compaction should also be considered in systems to monitor snow mass from space.
Xicai Pan, Daqing Yang, Yanping Li, Alan Barr, Warren Helgason, Masaki Hayashi, Philip Marsh, John Pomeroy, and Richard J. Janowicz
The Cryosphere, 10, 2347–2360, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2347-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2347-2016, 2016
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This study demonstrates a robust procedure for accumulating precipitation gauge measurements and provides an analysis of bias corrections of precipitation measurements across experimental sites in different ecoclimatic regions of western Canada. It highlights the need for and importance of precipitation bias corrections at both research sites and operational networks for water balance assessment and the validation of global/regional climate–hydrology models.
Tom Watts, Nick Rutter, Peter Toose, Chris Derksen, Melody Sandells, and John Woodward
The Cryosphere, 10, 2069–2074, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2069-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2069-2016, 2016
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Ice layers in snowpacks introduce uncertainty in satellite-derived estimates of snow water equivalent, have ecological impacts on plants and animals, and change the thermal and vapour transport properties of the snowpack. Here we present a new field method for measuring the density of ice layers. The method was used in the Arctic and mid-latitudes; the mean measured ice layer density was significantly higher than values typically used in the literature.
Stephen E. L. Howell, Frédéric Laliberté, Ron Kwok, Chris Derksen, and Joshua King
The Cryosphere, 10, 1463–1475, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1463-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1463-2016, 2016
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The Canadian Ice Service record of observed landfast ice and snow thickness represents one of the longest in the Arctic that spans over 5 decades. We analyze this record to report on long-term trends and variability of ice and snow thickness within the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA). Results indicate a thinning of ice at several sites in the CAA. State-of-the-art climate models still have difficultly capturing observed ice thickness values in the CAA and should be used with caution.
Alexandre Roy, Alain Royer, Olivier St-Jean-Rondeau, Benoit Montpetit, Ghislain Picard, Alex Mavrovic, Nicolas Marchand, and Alexandre Langlois
The Cryosphere, 10, 623–638, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-623-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-623-2016, 2016
Martin Proksch, Nick Rutter, Charles Fierz, and Martin Schneebeli
The Cryosphere, 10, 371–384, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-371-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-371-2016, 2016
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Density is a fundamental property of porous media such as snow. During the MicroSnow Davos 2014 workshop, different approaches (box-, wedge- and cylinder-type density cutters, micro-computed tomography) to measure snow density were applied in a controlled laboratory environment and in the field. In general, results suggest that snow densities measured by different methods agree within 9 %. However, the density profiles resolved by the measurement methods differed considerably.
C. Papasodoro, E. Berthier, A. Royer, C. Zdanowicz, and A. Langlois
The Cryosphere, 9, 1535–1550, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1535-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1535-2015, 2015
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Located at the far south (~62.5° N) of the Canadian Arctic, Grinnell and Terra Nivea Ice Caps are good climate proxies in this scarce data region. Multiple data sets (in situ, airborne and spaceborne) reveal changes in area, elevation and mass over the past 62 years. Ice wastage sharply accelerated during the last decade for both ice caps, as illustrated by the strongly negative mass balance of Terra Nivea over 2007-2014 (-1.77 ± 0.36 m a-1 w.e.). Possible climatic drivers are also discussed.
G. Picard, A. Royer, L. Arnaud, and M. Fily
The Cryosphere, 8, 1105–1119, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1105-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1105-2014, 2014
G. Picard, L. Brucker, A. Roy, F. Dupont, M. Fily, A. Royer, and C. Harlow
Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 1061–1078, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1061-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1061-2013, 2013
A. Roy, A. Royer, B. Montpetit, P. A. Bartlett, and A. Langlois
The Cryosphere, 7, 961–975, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-961-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-961-2013, 2013
Related subject area
Discipline: Snow | Subject: Remote Sensing
Snow water equivalent retrieved from X- and dual Ku-band scatterometer measurements at Sodankylä using the Markov Chain Monte Carlo method
Bayesian physical–statistical retrieval of snow water equivalent and snow depth from X- and Ku-band synthetic aperture radar – demonstration using airborne SnowSAr in SnowEx'17
Snow water equivalent retrieval over Idaho – Part 1: Using Sentinel-1 repeat-pass interferometry
Passive microwave remote-sensing-based high-resolution snow depth mapping for Western Himalayan zones using multifactor modeling approach
Mapping surface hoar from near-infrared texture in a laboratory
Retrieval of snow water equivalent from dual-frequency radar measurements: using time series to overcome the need for accurate a priori information
Snow accumulation, albedo and melt patterns following road construction on permafrost, Inuvik–Tuktoyaktuk Highway, Canada
Measuring the spatiotemporal variability in snow depth in subarctic environments using UASs – Part 1: Measurements, processing, and accuracy assessment
Measuring the spatiotemporal variability in snow depth in subarctic environments using UASs – Part 2: Snow processes and snow–canopy interactions
Evaluating Snow Microwave Radiative Transfer (SMRT) model emissivities with 89 to 243 GHz observations of Arctic tundra snow
Temperature-dominated spatiotemporal variability in snow phenology on the Tibetan Plateau from 2002 to 2021
Thermal infrared shadow-hiding in GOES-R ABI imagery: snow and forest temperature observations from the SnowEx 2020 Grand Mesa field campaign
Evaluating the utility of active microwave observations as a snow mission concept using observing system simulation experiments
Evaluation of snow depth retrievals from ICESat-2 using airborne laser-scanning data
How do tradeoffs in satellite spatial and temporal resolution impact snow water equivalent reconstruction?
Exploring the use of multi-source high-resolution satellite data for snow water equivalent reconstruction over mountainous catchments
Estimating snow accumulation and ablation with L-band interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR)
Snowmelt characterization from optical and synthetic-aperture radar observations in the La Joie Basin, British Columbia
Topographic and vegetation controls of the spatial distribution of snow depth in agro-forested environments by UAV lidar
Temporal stability of long-term satellite and reanalysis products to monitor snow cover trends
Towards long-term records of rain-on-snow events across the Arctic from satellite data
Implementing spatially and temporally varying snow densities into the GlobSnow snow water equivalent retrieval
Evaluation of E3SM land model snow simulations over the western United States
Landsat, MODIS, and VIIRS snow cover mapping algorithm performance as validated by airborne lidar datasets
Snow stratigraphy observations from Operation IceBridge surveys in Alaska using S and C band airborne ultra-wideband FMCW (frequency-modulated continuous wave) radar
Brief communication: A continuous formulation of microwave scattering from fresh snow to bubbly ice from first principles
Review article: Global monitoring of snow water equivalent using high-frequency radar remote sensing
Automated avalanche mapping from SPOT 6/7 satellite imagery with deep learning: results, evaluation, potential and limitations
Potential of X-band polarimetric synthetic aperture radar co-polar phase difference for arctic snow depth estimation
Snow water equivalent change mapping from slope-correlated synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) phase variations
Sentinel-1 time series for mapping snow cover depletion and timing of snowmelt in Arctic periglacial environments: case study from Zackenberg and Kobbefjord, Greenland
Sentinel-1 snow depth retrieval at sub-kilometer resolution over the European Alps
Mapping liquid water content in snow at the millimeter scale: an intercomparison of mixed-phase optical property models using hyperspectral imaging and in situ measurements
Brief communication: Evaluation of the snow cover detection in the Copernicus High Resolution Snow & Ice Monitoring Service
Evaluation of snow extent time series derived from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer global area coverage data (1982–2018) in the Hindu Kush Himalayas
Deriving Arctic 2 m air temperatures over snow and ice from satellite surface temperature measurements
Impact of dynamic snow density on GlobSnow snow water equivalent retrieval accuracy
The retrieval of snow properties from SLSTR Sentinel-3 – Part 1: Method description and sensitivity study
The retrieval of snow properties from SLSTR Sentinel-3 – Part 2: Results and validation
Tree canopy and snow depth relationships at fine scales with terrestrial laser scanning
Snow depth mapping with unpiloted aerial system lidar observations: a case study in Durham, New Hampshire, United States
Mapping avalanches with satellites – evaluation of performance and completeness
Estimating fractional snow cover from passive microwave brightness temperature data using MODIS snow cover product over North America
Snow depth time series retrieval by time-lapse photography: Finnish and Italian case studies
Intercomparison of photogrammetric platforms for spatially continuous snow depth mapping
Simulating optical top-of-atmosphere radiance satellite images over snow-covered rugged terrain
Parameterizing anisotropic reflectance of snow surfaces from airborne digital camera observations in Antarctica
Snow depth mapping from stereo satellite imagery in mountainous terrain: evaluation using airborne laser-scanning data
Improving sub-canopy snow depth mapping with unmanned aerial vehicles: lidar versus structure-from-motion techniques
Use of Sentinel-1 radar observations to evaluate snowmelt dynamics in alpine regions
Jinmei Pan, Michael Durand, Juha Lemmetyinen, Desheng Liu, and Jiancheng Shi
The Cryosphere, 18, 1561–1578, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1561-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1561-2024, 2024
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We developed an algorithm to estimate snow mass using X- and dual Ku-band radar, and tested it in a ground-based experiment. The algorithm, the Bayesian-based Algorithm for SWE Estimation (BASE) using active microwaves, achieved an RMSE of 30 mm for snow water equivalent. These results demonstrate the potential of radar, a highly promising sensor, to map snow mass at high spatial resolution.
Siddharth Singh, Michael Durand, Edward Kim, and Ana P. Barros
The Cryosphere, 18, 747–773, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-747-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-747-2024, 2024
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Seasonal snowfall accumulation plays a critical role in climate. The water stored in it is measured by the snow water equivalent (SWE), the amount of water released after completely melting. We demonstrate a Bayesian physical–statistical framework to estimate SWE from airborne X- and Ku-band synthetic aperture radar backscatter measurements constrained by physical snow hydrology and radar models. We explored spatial resolutions and vertical structures that agree well with ground observations.
Shadi Oveisgharan, Robert Zinke, Zachary Hoppinen, and Hans Peter Marshall
The Cryosphere, 18, 559–574, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-559-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-559-2024, 2024
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The seasonal snowpack provides water resources to billions of people worldwide. Large-scale mapping of snow water equivalent (SWE) with high resolution is critical for many scientific and economics fields. In this work we used the radar remote sensing interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) to estimate the SWE change between 2 d. The error in the estimated SWE change is less than 2 cm for in situ stations. Additionally, the retrieved SWE using InSAR is correlated with lidar snow depth.
Dhiraj Kumar Singh, Srinivasarao Tanniru, Kamal Kant Singh, Harendra Singh Negi, and RAAJ Ramsankaran
The Cryosphere, 18, 451–474, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-451-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-451-2024, 2024
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In situ techniques for snow depth (SD) measurement are not adequate to represent the spatiotemporal variability in SD in the Western Himalayan region. Therefore, this study focuses on the high-resolution mapping of daily snow depth in the Indian Western Himalayan region using passive microwave remote-sensing-based algorithms. Overall, the proposed multifactor SD models demonstrated substantial improvement compared to the operational products. However, there is a scope for further improvement.
James Dillon, Christopher Donahue, Evan Schehrer, Karl Birkeland, and Kevin Hammonds
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3133, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3133, 2024
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Surface hoar crystals are snow grains that form when vapor deposits on the snow surface. They create a weak layer in the snowpack that can cause large avalanches to occur. Thus, determining when and where surface hoar forms is a lifesaving matter. Here, we developed a means of mapping surface hoar using remote sensing technologies. We found that surface hoar displayed heightened texture, hence the variability of brightness. Using this, we created surface hoar maps with accuracy upwards of 95 %.
Michael Durand, Joel T. Johnson, Jack Dechow, Leung Tsang, Firoz Borah, and Edward J. Kim
The Cryosphere, 18, 139–152, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-139-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-139-2024, 2024
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Seasonal snow accumulates each winter, storing water to release later in the year and modulating both water and energy cycles, but the amount of seasonal snow is one of the most poorly measured components of the global water cycle. Satellite concepts to monitor snow accumulation have been proposed but not selected. This paper shows that snow accumulation can be measured using radar, and that (contrary to previous studies) does not require highly accurate information about snow microstructure.
Jennika Hammar, Inge Grünberg, Steven V. Kokelj, Jurjen van der Sluijs, and Julia Boike
The Cryosphere, 17, 5357–5372, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5357-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5357-2023, 2023
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Roads on permafrost have significant environmental effects. This study assessed the Inuvik to Tuktoyaktuk Highway (ITH) in Canada and its impact on snow accumulation, albedo and snowmelt timing. Our findings revealed that snow accumulation increased by up to 36 m from the road, 12-day earlier snowmelt within 100 m due to reduced albedo, and altered snowmelt patterns in seemingly undisturbed areas. Remote sensing aids in understanding road impacts on permafrost.
Anssi Rauhala, Leo-Juhani Meriö, Anton Kuzmin, Pasi Korpelainen, Pertti Ala-aho, Timo Kumpula, Bjørn Kløve, and Hannu Marttila
The Cryosphere, 17, 4343–4362, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4343-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4343-2023, 2023
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Snow conditions in the Northern Hemisphere are rapidly changing, and information on snow depth is important for decision-making. We present snow depth measurements using different drones throughout the winter at a subarctic site. Generally, all drones produced good estimates of snow depth in open areas. However, differences were observed in the accuracies produced by the different drones, and a reduction in accuracy was observed when moving from an open mire area to forest-covered areas.
Leo-Juhani Meriö, Anssi Rauhala, Pertti Ala-aho, Anton Kuzmin, Pasi Korpelainen, Timo Kumpula, Bjørn Kløve, and Hannu Marttila
The Cryosphere, 17, 4363–4380, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4363-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4363-2023, 2023
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Information on seasonal snow cover is essential in understanding snow processes and operational forecasting. We study the spatiotemporal variability in snow depth and snow processes in a subarctic, boreal landscape using drones. We identified multiple theoretically known snow processes and interactions between snow and vegetation. The results highlight the applicability of the drones to be used for a detailed study of snow depth in multiple land cover types and snow–vegetation interactions.
Kirsty Wivell, Stuart Fox, Melody Sandells, Chawn Harlow, Richard Essery, and Nick Rutter
The Cryosphere, 17, 4325–4341, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4325-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4325-2023, 2023
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Satellite microwave observations improve weather forecasts, but to use these observations in the Arctic, snow emission must be known. This study uses airborne and in situ snow observations to validate emissivity simulations for two- and three-layer snowpacks at key frequencies for weather prediction. We assess the impact of thickness, grain size and density in key snow layers, which will help inform development of physical snow models that provide snow profile input to emissivity simulations.
Jiahui Xu, Yao Tang, Linxin Dong, Shujie Wang, Bailang Yu, Jianping Wu, Zhaojun Zheng, and Yan Huang
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2023-135, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2023-135, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for TC
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Understanding snow phenology (SP) and its possible feedback are important. We reveal dynamic variability in SP and the mediating effects from meteorological, topographic, and environmental factors on the Tibetan Plateau (TP). SP is spatiotemporal heterogeneous and its interannual variation is elevation-dependent. The importance of temperature versus precipitation to SP shifted across elevation. This study contributes to understanding past global warming and predicting future trends on the TP.
Steven J. Pestana, C. Chris Chickadel, and Jessica D. Lundquist
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1784, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1784, 2023
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We compared infrared images taken by GOES-R satellites of an area with snow and forests against surface temperature measurements taken on the ground, from an aircraft, and by another satellite. We found that GOES-R measured warmer temperatures than the other measurements, especially in areas with more forest, and when the sun was behind the satellite. From this work, we’ve learned that the position of the sun and surface features such as trees that can cast shadows impact GOES-R infrared images.
Eunsang Cho, Carrie M. Vuyovich, Sujay V. Kumar, Melissa L. Wrzesien, and Rhae Sung Kim
The Cryosphere, 17, 3915–3931, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3915-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3915-2023, 2023
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As a future snow mission concept, active microwave sensors have the potential to measure snow water equivalent (SWE) in deep snowpack and forested environments. We used a modeling and data assimilation approach (a so-called observing system simulation experiment) to quantify the usefulness of active microwave-based SWE retrievals over western Colorado. We found that active microwave sensors with a mature retrieval algorithm can improve SWE simulations by about 20 % in the mountainous domain.
César Deschamps-Berger, Simon Gascoin, David Shean, Hannah Besso, Ambroise Guiot, and Juan Ignacio López-Moreno
The Cryosphere, 17, 2779–2792, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2779-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2779-2023, 2023
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The estimation of the snow depth in mountains is hard, despite the importance of the snowpack for human societies and ecosystems. We measured the snow depth in mountains by comparing the elevation of points measured with snow from the high-precision altimetric satellite ICESat-2 to the elevation without snow from various sources. Snow depths derived only from ICESat-2 were too sparse, but using external airborne/satellite products results in spatially richer and sufficiently precise snow depths.
Edward H. Bair, Jeff Dozier, Karl Rittger, Timbo Stillinger, William Kleiber, and Robert E. Davis
The Cryosphere, 17, 2629–2643, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2629-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2629-2023, 2023
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To test the title question, three snow cover products were used in a snow model. Contrary to previous work, higher-spatial-resolution snow cover products only improved the model accuracy marginally. Conclusions are as follows: (1) snow cover and albedo from moderate-resolution sensors continue to provide accurate forcings and (2) finer spatial and temporal resolutions are the future for Earth observations, but existing moderate-resolution sensors still offer value.
Valentina Premier, Carlo Marin, Giacomo Bertoldi, Riccardo Barella, Claudia Notarnicola, and Lorenzo Bruzzone
The Cryosphere, 17, 2387–2407, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2387-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2387-2023, 2023
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The large amount of information regularly acquired by satellites can provide important information about SWE. We explore the use of multi-source satellite data, in situ observations, and a degree-day model to reconstruct daily SWE at 25 m. The results show spatial patterns that are consistent with the topographical features as well as with a reference product. Being able to also reproduce interannual variability, the method has great potential for hydrological and ecological applications.
Jack Tarricone, Ryan W. Webb, Hans-Peter Marshall, Anne W. Nolin, and Franz J. Meyer
The Cryosphere, 17, 1997–2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1997-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1997-2023, 2023
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Mountain snowmelt provides water for billions of people across the globe. Despite its importance, we cannot currently measure the amount of water in mountain snowpacks from satellites. In this research, we test the ability of an experimental snow remote sensing technique from an airplane in preparation for the same sensor being launched on a future NASA satellite. We found that the method worked better than expected for estimating important snowpack properties.
Sara E. Darychuk, Joseph M. Shea, Brian Menounos, Anna Chesnokova, Georg Jost, and Frank Weber
The Cryosphere, 17, 1457–1473, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1457-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1457-2023, 2023
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We use synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) and optical observations to map snowmelt timing and duration on the watershed scale. We found that Sentinel-1 SAR time series can be used to approximate snowmelt onset over diverse terrain and land cover types, and we present a low-cost workflow for SAR processing over large, mountainous regions. Our approach provides spatially distributed observations of the snowpack necessary for model calibration and can be used to monitor snowmelt in ungauged basins.
Vasana Dharmadasa, Christophe Kinnard, and Michel Baraër
The Cryosphere, 17, 1225–1246, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1225-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1225-2023, 2023
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This study highlights the successful usage of UAV lidar to monitor small-scale snow depth distribution. Our results show that underlying topography and wind redistribution of snow along forest edges govern the snow depth variability at agro-forested sites, while forest structure variability dominates snow depth variability in the coniferous environment. This emphasizes the importance of including and better representing these processes in physically based models for accurate snowpack estimates.
Ruben Urraca and Nadine Gobron
The Cryosphere, 17, 1023–1052, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1023-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1023-2023, 2023
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We evaluate the fitness of some of the longest satellite (NOAA CDR, 1966–2020) and reanalysis (ERA5, 1950–2020; ERA5-Land, 1950–2020) products currently available to monitor the Northern Hemisphere snow cover trends using 527 stations as the reference. We found different artificial trends and stepwise discontinuities in all the products that hinder the accurate monitoring of snow trends, at least without bias correction. The study also provides updates on the snow cover trends during 1950–2020.
Annett Bartsch, Helena Bergstedt, Georg Pointner, Xaver Muri, Kimmo Rautiainen, Leena Leppänen, Kyle Joly, Aleksandr Sokolov, Pavel Orekhov, Dorothee Ehrich, and Eeva Mariatta Soininen
The Cryosphere, 17, 889–915, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-889-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-889-2023, 2023
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Rain-on-snow (ROS) events occur across many regions of the terrestrial Arctic in mid-winter. In extreme cases ice layers form which affect wildlife, vegetation and soils beyond the duration of the event. The fusion of multiple types of microwave satellite observations is suggested for the creation of a climate data record. Retrieval is most robust in the tundra biome, where records can be used to identify extremes and the results can be applied to impact studies at regional scale.
Pinja Venäläinen, Kari Luojus, Colleen Mortimer, Juha Lemmetyinen, Jouni Pulliainen, Matias Takala, Mikko Moisander, and Lina Zschenderlein
The Cryosphere, 17, 719–736, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-719-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-719-2023, 2023
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Snow water equivalent (SWE) is a valuable characteristic of snow cover. In this research, we improve the radiometer-based GlobSnow SWE retrieval methodology by implementing spatially and temporally varying snow densities into the retrieval procedure. In addition to improving the accuracy of SWE retrieval, varying snow densities were found to improve the magnitude and seasonal evolution of the Northern Hemisphere snow mass estimate compared to the baseline product.
Dalei Hao, Gautam Bisht, Karl Rittger, Timbo Stillinger, Edward Bair, Yu Gu, and L. Ruby Leung
The Cryosphere, 17, 673–697, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-673-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-673-2023, 2023
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We comprehensively evaluated the snow simulations in E3SM land model over the western United States in terms of spatial patterns, temporal correlations, interannual variabilities, elevation gradients, and change with forest cover of snow properties and snow phenology. Our study underscores the need for diagnosing model biases and improving the model representations of snow properties and snow phenology in mountainous areas for more credible simulation and future projection of mountain snowpack.
Timbo Stillinger, Karl Rittger, Mark S. Raleigh, Alex Michell, Robert E. Davis, and Edward H. Bair
The Cryosphere, 17, 567–590, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-567-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-567-2023, 2023
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Understanding global snow cover is critical for comprehending climate change and its impacts on the lives of billions of people. Satellites are the best way to monitor global snow cover, yet snow varies at a finer spatial resolution than most satellite images. We assessed subpixel snow mapping methods across a spectrum of conditions using airborne lidar. Spectral-unmixing methods outperformed older operational methods and are ready to to advance snow cover mapping at the global scale.
Jilu Li, Fernando Rodriguez-Morales, Xavier Fettweis, Oluwanisola Ibikunle, Carl Leuschen, John Paden, Daniel Gomez-Garcia, and Emily Arnold
The Cryosphere, 17, 175–193, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-175-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-175-2023, 2023
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Alaskan glaciers' loss of ice mass contributes significantly to ocean surface rise. It is important to know how deeply and how much snow accumulates on these glaciers to comprehend and analyze the glacial mass loss process. We reported the observed seasonal snow depth distribution from our radar data taken in Alaska in 2018 and 2021, developed a method to estimate the annual snow accumulation rate at Mt. Wrangell caldera, and identified transition zones from wet-snow zones to ablation zones.
Ghislain Picard, Henning Löwe, and Christian Mätzler
The Cryosphere, 16, 3861–3866, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3861-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3861-2022, 2022
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Microwave satellite observations used to monitor the cryosphere require radiative transfer models for their interpretation. These models represent how microwaves are scattered by snow and ice. However no existing theory is suitable for all types of snow and ice found on Earth. We adapted a recently published generic scattering theory to snow and show how it may improve the representation of snows with intermediate densities (~500 kg/m3) and/or with coarse grains at high microwave frequencies.
Leung Tsang, Michael Durand, Chris Derksen, Ana P. Barros, Do-Hyuk Kang, Hans Lievens, Hans-Peter Marshall, Jiyue Zhu, Joel Johnson, Joshua King, Juha Lemmetyinen, Melody Sandells, Nick Rutter, Paul Siqueira, Anne Nolin, Batu Osmanoglu, Carrie Vuyovich, Edward Kim, Drew Taylor, Ioanna Merkouriadi, Ludovic Brucker, Mahdi Navari, Marie Dumont, Richard Kelly, Rhae Sung Kim, Tien-Hao Liao, Firoz Borah, and Xiaolan Xu
The Cryosphere, 16, 3531–3573, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3531-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3531-2022, 2022
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Snow water equivalent (SWE) is of fundamental importance to water, energy, and geochemical cycles but is poorly observed globally. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) measurements at X- and Ku-band can address this gap. This review serves to inform the broad snow research, monitoring, and application communities about the progress made in recent decades to move towards a new satellite mission capable of addressing the needs of the geoscience researchers and users.
Elisabeth D. Hafner, Patrick Barton, Rodrigo Caye Daudt, Jan Dirk Wegner, Konrad Schindler, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 16, 3517–3530, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3517-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3517-2022, 2022
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Knowing where avalanches occur is very important information for several disciplines, for example avalanche warning, hazard zonation and risk management. Satellite imagery can provide such data systematically over large regions. In our work we propose a machine learning model to automate the time-consuming manual mapping. Additionally, we investigate expert agreement for manual avalanche mapping, showing that our network is equally as good as the experts in identifying avalanches.
Joëlle Voglimacci-Stephanopoli, Anna Wendleder, Hugues Lantuit, Alexandre Langlois, Samuel Stettner, Andreas Schmitt, Jean-Pierre Dedieu, Achim Roth, and Alain Royer
The Cryosphere, 16, 2163–2181, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2163-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2163-2022, 2022
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Changes in the state of the snowpack in the context of observed global warming must be considered to improve our understanding of the processes within the cryosphere. This study aims to characterize an arctic snowpack using the TerraSAR-X satellite. Using a high-spatial-resolution vegetation classification, we were able to quantify the variability in snow depth, as well as the topographic soil wetness index, which provided a better understanding of the electromagnetic wave–ground interaction.
Jayson Eppler, Bernhard Rabus, and Peter Morse
The Cryosphere, 16, 1497–1521, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1497-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1497-2022, 2022
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We introduce a new method for mapping changes in the snow water equivalent (SWE) of dry snow based on differences between time-repeated synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images. It correlates phase differences with variations in the topographic slope which allows the method to work without any "reference" targets within the imaged area and without having to numerically unwrap the spatial phase maps. This overcomes the key challenges faced in using SAR interferometry for SWE change mapping.
Sebastian Buchelt, Kirstine Skov, Kerstin Krøier Rasmussen, and Tobias Ullmann
The Cryosphere, 16, 625–646, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-625-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-625-2022, 2022
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In this paper, we present a threshold and a derivative approach using Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar time series to capture the small-scale heterogeneity of snow cover (SC) and snowmelt. Thereby, we can identify start of runoff and end of SC as well as perennial snow and SC extent during melt with high spatiotemporal resolution. Hence, our approach could support monitoring of distribution patterns and hydrological cascading effects of SC from the catchment scale to pan-Arctic observations.
Hans Lievens, Isis Brangers, Hans-Peter Marshall, Tobias Jonas, Marc Olefs, and Gabriëlle De Lannoy
The Cryosphere, 16, 159–177, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-159-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-159-2022, 2022
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Snow depth observations at high spatial resolution from the Sentinel-1 satellite mission are presented over the European Alps. The novel observations can improve our knowledge of seasonal snow mass in areas with complex topography, where satellite-based estimates are currently lacking, and benefit a number of applications including water resource management, flood forecasting, and numerical weather prediction.
Christopher Donahue, S. McKenzie Skiles, and Kevin Hammonds
The Cryosphere, 16, 43–59, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-43-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-43-2022, 2022
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The amount of water within a snowpack is important information for predicting snowmelt and wet-snow avalanches. From within a controlled laboratory, the optimal method for measuring liquid water content (LWC) at the snow surface or along a snow pit profile using near-infrared imagery was determined. As snow samples melted, multiple models to represent wet-snow reflectance were assessed against a more established LWC instrument. The best model represents snow as separate spheres of ice and water.
Zacharie Barrou Dumont, Simon Gascoin, Olivier Hagolle, Michaël Ablain, Rémi Jugier, Germain Salgues, Florence Marti, Aurore Dupuis, Marie Dumont, and Samuel Morin
The Cryosphere, 15, 4975–4980, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4975-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4975-2021, 2021
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Since 2020, the Copernicus High Resolution Snow & Ice Monitoring Service has distributed snow cover maps at 20 m resolution over Europe in near-real time. These products are derived from the Sentinel-2 Earth observation mission, with a revisit time of 5 d or less (cloud-permitting). Here we show the good accuracy of the snow detection over a wide range of regions in Europe, except in dense forest regions where the snow cover is hidden by the trees.
Xiaodan Wu, Kathrin Naegeli, Valentina Premier, Carlo Marin, Dujuan Ma, Jingping Wang, and Stefan Wunderle
The Cryosphere, 15, 4261–4279, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4261-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4261-2021, 2021
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We performed a comprehensive accuracy assessment of an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer global area coverage snow-cover extent time series dataset for the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region. The sensor-to-sensor consistency, the accuracy related to snow depth, elevations, land-cover types, slope, and aspects, and topographical variability were also explored. Our analysis shows an overall accuracy of 94 % in comparison with in situ station data, which is the same with MOD10A1 V006.
Pia Nielsen-Englyst, Jacob L. Høyer, Kristine S. Madsen, Rasmus T. Tonboe, Gorm Dybkjær, and Sotirios Skarpalezos
The Cryosphere, 15, 3035–3057, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3035-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3035-2021, 2021
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The Arctic region is responding heavily to climate change, and yet, the air temperature of Arctic ice-covered areas is heavily under-sampled when it comes to in situ measurements. This paper presents a method for estimating daily mean 2 m air temperatures (T2m) in the Arctic from satellite observations of skin temperature, providing spatially detailed observations of the Arctic. The satellite-derived T2m product covers clear-sky snow and ice surfaces in the Arctic for the period 2000–2009.
Pinja Venäläinen, Kari Luojus, Juha Lemmetyinen, Jouni Pulliainen, Mikko Moisander, and Matias Takala
The Cryosphere, 15, 2969–2981, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2969-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2969-2021, 2021
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Information about snow water equivalent (SWE) is needed in many applications, including climate model evaluation and forecasting fresh water availability. Space-borne radiometer observations combined with ground snow depth measurements can be used to make global estimates of SWE. In this study, we investigate the possibility of using sparse snow density measurement in satellite-based SWE retrieval and show that using the snow density information in post-processing improves SWE estimations.
Linlu Mei, Vladimir Rozanov, Christine Pohl, Marco Vountas, and John P. Burrows
The Cryosphere, 15, 2757–2780, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2757-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2757-2021, 2021
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This paper presents a new snow property retrieval algorithm from satellite observations. This is Part 1 of two companion papers and shows the method description and sensitivity study. The paper investigates the major factors, including the assumptions of snow optical properties, snow particle distribution and atmospheric conditions (cloud and aerosol), impacting snow property retrievals from satellite observation.
Linlu Mei, Vladimir Rozanov, Evelyn Jäkel, Xiao Cheng, Marco Vountas, and John P. Burrows
The Cryosphere, 15, 2781–2802, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2781-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2781-2021, 2021
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This paper presents a new snow property retrieval algorithm from satellite observations. This is Part 2 of two companion papers and shows the results and validation. The paper performs the new retrieval algorithm on the Sea and Land
Surface Temperature Radiometer (SLSTR) instrument and compares the retrieved snow properties with ground-based measurements, aircraft measurements and other satellite products.
Ahmad Hojatimalekshah, Zachary Uhlmann, Nancy F. Glenn, Christopher A. Hiemstra, Christopher J. Tennant, Jake D. Graham, Lucas Spaete, Arthur Gelvin, Hans-Peter Marshall, James P. McNamara, and Josh Enterkine
The Cryosphere, 15, 2187–2209, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2187-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2187-2021, 2021
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We describe the relationships between snow depth, vegetation canopy, and local-scale processes during the snow accumulation period using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). In addition to topography and wind, our findings suggest the importance of fine-scale tree structure, species type, and distributions on snow depth. Snow depth increases from the canopy edge toward the open areas, but wind and topographic controls may affect this trend. TLS data are complementary to wide-area lidar surveys.
Jennifer M. Jacobs, Adam G. Hunsaker, Franklin B. Sullivan, Michael Palace, Elizabeth A. Burakowski, Christina Herrick, and Eunsang Cho
The Cryosphere, 15, 1485–1500, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1485-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1485-2021, 2021
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This pilot study describes a proof of concept for using lidar on an unpiloted aerial vehicle to map shallow snowpack (< 20 cm) depth in open terrain and forests. The 1 m2 resolution snow depth map, generated by subtracting snow-off from snow-on lidar-derived digital terrain models, consistently had 0.5 to 1 cm precision in the field, with a considerable reduction in accuracy in the forest. Performance depends on the point cloud density and the ground surface variability and vegetation.
Elisabeth D. Hafner, Frank Techel, Silvan Leinss, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 15, 983–1004, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-983-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-983-2021, 2021
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Satellites prove to be very valuable for documentation of large-scale avalanche periods. To test reliability and completeness, which has not been satisfactorily verified before, we attempt a full validation of avalanches mapped from two optical sensors and one radar sensor. Our results demonstrate the reliability of high-spatial-resolution optical data for avalanche mapping, the suitability of radar for mapping of larger avalanches and the unsuitability of medium-spatial-resolution optical data.
Xiongxin Xiao, Shunlin Liang, Tao He, Daiqiang Wu, Congyuan Pei, and Jianya Gong
The Cryosphere, 15, 835–861, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-835-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-835-2021, 2021
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Daily time series and full space-covered sub-pixel snow cover area data are urgently needed for climate and reanalysis studies. Due to the fact that observations from optical satellite sensors are affected by clouds, this study attempts to capture dynamic characteristics of snow cover at a fine spatiotemporal resolution (daily; 6.25 km) accurately by using passive microwave data. We demonstrate the potential to use the passive microwave and the MODIS data to map the fractional snow cover area.
Marco Bongio, Ali Nadir Arslan, Cemal Melih Tanis, and Carlo De Michele
The Cryosphere, 15, 369–387, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-369-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-369-2021, 2021
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The capability of time-lapse photography to retrieve snow depth time series was tested. We demonstrated that this method can be efficiently used in three different case studies: two in the Italian Alps and one in a forested region of Finland, with an accuracy comparable to the most common methods such as ultrasonic sensors or manual measurements. We hope that this simple method based only on a camera and a graduated stake can enable snow depth measurements in dangerous and inaccessible sites.
Lucie A. Eberhard, Pascal Sirguey, Aubrey Miller, Mauro Marty, Konrad Schindler, Andreas Stoffel, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 15, 69–94, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-69-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-69-2021, 2021
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In spring 2018 in the alpine Dischma valley (Switzerland), we tested different industrial photogrammetric platforms for snow depth mapping. These platforms were high-resolution satellites, an airplane, unmanned aerial systems and a terrestrial system. Therefore, this study gives a general overview of the accuracy and precision of the different photogrammetric platforms available in space and on earth and their use for snow depth mapping.
Maxim Lamare, Marie Dumont, Ghislain Picard, Fanny Larue, François Tuzet, Clément Delcourt, and Laurent Arnaud
The Cryosphere, 14, 3995–4020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3995-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3995-2020, 2020
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Terrain features found in mountainous regions introduce large errors into the calculation of the physical properties of snow using optical satellite images. We present a new model performing rapid calculations of solar radiation over snow-covered rugged terrain that we tested over a site in the French Alps. The results of the study show that all the interactions between sunlight and the terrain should be accounted for over snow-covered surfaces to correctly estimate snow properties from space.
Tim Carlsen, Gerit Birnbaum, André Ehrlich, Veit Helm, Evelyn Jäkel, Michael Schäfer, and Manfred Wendisch
The Cryosphere, 14, 3959–3978, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3959-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3959-2020, 2020
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The angular reflection of solar radiation by snow surfaces is particularly anisotropic and highly variable. We measured the angular reflection from an aircraft using a digital camera in Antarctica in 2013/14 and studied its variability: the anisotropy increases with a lower Sun but decreases for rougher surfaces and larger snow grains. The applied methodology allows for a direct comparison with satellite observations, which generally underestimated the anisotropy measured within this study.
César Deschamps-Berger, Simon Gascoin, Etienne Berthier, Jeffrey Deems, Ethan Gutmann, Amaury Dehecq, David Shean, and Marie Dumont
The Cryosphere, 14, 2925–2940, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2925-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2925-2020, 2020
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We evaluate a recent method to map snow depth based on satellite photogrammetry. We compare it with accurate airborne laser-scanning measurements in the Sierra Nevada, USA. We find that satellite data capture the relationship between snow depth and elevation at the catchment scale and also small-scale features like snow drifts and avalanche deposits. We conclude that satellite photogrammetry stands out as a convenient method to estimate the spatial distribution of snow depth in high mountains.
Phillip Harder, John W. Pomeroy, and Warren D. Helgason
The Cryosphere, 14, 1919–1935, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1919-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1919-2020, 2020
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Unmanned-aerial-vehicle-based (UAV) structure-from-motion (SfM) techniques have the ability to map snow depths in open areas. Here UAV lidar and SfM are compared to map sub-canopy snowpacks. Snow depth accuracy was assessed with data from sites in western Canada collected in 2019. It is demonstrated that UAV lidar can measure the sub-canopy snow depth at a high accuracy, while UAV-SfM cannot. UAV lidar promises to quantify snow–vegetation interactions at unprecedented accuracy and resolution.
Carlo Marin, Giacomo Bertoldi, Valentina Premier, Mattia Callegari, Christian Brida, Kerstin Hürkamp, Jochen Tschiersch, Marc Zebisch, and Claudia Notarnicola
The Cryosphere, 14, 935–956, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-935-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-935-2020, 2020
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In this paper, we use for the first time the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) time series acquired by Sentinel-1 to monitor snowmelt dynamics in alpine regions. We found that the multitemporal SAR allows the identification of the three phases that characterize the melting process, i.e., moistening, ripening and runoff, in a spatial distributed way. We believe that the presented investigation could have relevant applications for monitoring and predicting the snowmelt progress over large regions.
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Short summary
To estimate snow water equivalent from space, model predictions of the satellite measurement (brightness temperature in our case) have to be used. These models allow us to estimate snow properties from the brightness temperature by inverting the model. To improve SWE estimate, we proposed incorporating the variability of snow in these model as it has not been taken into account yet. A new parameter (coefficient of variation) is proposed because it improved simulation of brightness temperature.
To estimate snow water equivalent from space, model predictions of the satellite measurement...
