Articles | Volume 11, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2897-2017
© Author(s) 2017. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2897-2017
© Author(s) 2017. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
12 Dec 2017
Research article |
| 12 Dec 2017
Evaluation of different methods to model near-surface turbulent fluxes for a mountain glacier in the Cariboo Mountains, BC, Canada
Valentina Radić
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Earth Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Department (EOAS), The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Brian Menounos
Natural Resources and Environmental Studies Institute and Geography
Program, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, Canada
Joseph Shea
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal
Centre for Hydrology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
Noel Fitzpatrick
Earth Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Department (EOAS), The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Mekdes A. Tessema
Earth Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Department (EOAS), The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Stephen J. Déry
Natural Resources and Environmental Studies Institute and Environmental
Science and Engineering Program, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, Canada
Related authors
Christina Draeger, Valentina Radić, Rachel H. White, and Mekdes Ayalew Tessema
The Cryosphere, 18, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-17-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-17-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study increases our confidence in using reanalysis data for reconstructions of past glacier melt and in using dynamical downscaling for long-term simulations from global climate models to project glacier melt. We find that the surface energy balance model, forced with reanalysis and dynamically downscaled reanalysis data, yields <10 % difference in the modeled total melt energy when compared to the same model being forced with observations at our glacier sites in western Canada.
Jonathan P. Conway, Jakob Abermann, Liss M. Andreassen, Mohd Farooq Azam, Nicolas J. Cullen, Noel Fitzpatrick, Rianne H. Giesen, Kirsty Langley, Shelley MacDonell, Thomas Mölg, Valentina Radić, Carleen H. Reijmer, and Jean-Emmanuel Sicart
The Cryosphere, 16, 3331–3356, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3331-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3331-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We used data from automatic weather stations on 16 glaciers to show how clouds influence glacier melt in different climates around the world. We found surface melt was always more frequent when it was cloudy but was not universally faster or slower than under clear-sky conditions. Also, air temperature was related to clouds in opposite ways in different climates – warmer with clouds in cold climates and vice versa. These results will help us improve how we model past and future glacier melt.
Sam Anderson and Valentina Radić
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 795–825, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-795-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-795-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We develop and interpret a spatiotemporal deep learning model for regional streamflow prediction at more than 200 stream gauge stations in western Canada. We find the novel modelling style to work very well for daily streamflow prediction. Importantly, we interpret model learning to show that it has learned to focus on physically interpretable and physically relevant information, which is a highly desirable quality of machine-learning-based hydrological models.
Noel Fitzpatrick, Valentina Radić, and Brian Menounos
The Cryosphere, 13, 1051–1071, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1051-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1051-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Measurements of surface roughness are rare on glaciers, despite being an important control for heat exchange with the atmosphere and surface melt. In this study, roughness values were determined through measurements at multiple locations and seasons and found to vary across glacier surfaces and to differ from commonly assumed values in melt models. Two new methods that remotely determine roughness from digital elevation models returned good performance and may facilitate improved melt modelling.
Mekdes Ayalew Tessema, Valentina Radić, Brian Menounos, and Noel Fitzpatrick
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2018-154, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2018-154, 2018
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
To force physics-based models of glacier melt, meteorological variables and energy fluxes are needed at or in vicinity of the glaciers in question. In the absence of observations detailing these variables, the required forcing is commonly derived by downscaling the coarse-resolution output from global climate models (GCMs). This study investigates how the downscaled fields from GCMs can successfully resolve the local processes driving surface melting at three glaciers in British Columbia.
S. H. Mernild, W. H. Lipscomb, D. B. Bahr, V. Radić, and M. Zemp
The Cryosphere, 7, 1565–1577, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1565-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1565-2013, 2013
Etienne Berthier, Jérôme Lebreton, Delphine Fontannaz, Steven Hosford, Joaquín Muñoz-Cobo Belart, Fanny Brun, Liss M. Andreassen, Brian Menounos, and Charlotte Blondel
The Cryosphere, 18, 5551–5571, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5551-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5551-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Repeat elevation measurements are crucial for monitoring glacier health and to understand how glaciers affect river flows and sea level. Until recently, high-resolution elevation data were mostly available for polar regions and High Mountain Asia. Our project, the Pléiades Glacier Observatory, now provides high-resolution topographies of 140 glacier sites worldwide. This is a novel and open dataset to monitor the impact of climate change on glaciers at high resolution and accuracy.
Adam C. Hawkins, Brent M. Goehring, and Brian Menounos
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2900, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2900, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We use a method called cosmogenic nuclide dating on bedrock surfaces and moraine boulders to determine the relative length of time an alpine glacier was larger or smaller than its current extent over the past 15 thousand years. We also discuss several important limitations to this method. This method gives information on the duration of past ice advances and is useful in areas without other materials that can be dated.
Brian Menounos, Alex Gardner, Caitlyn Florentine, and Andrew Fountain
The Cryosphere, 18, 889–894, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-889-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-889-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Glaciers in western North American outside of Alaska are often overlooked in global studies because their potential to contribute to changes in sea level is small. Nonetheless, these glaciers represent important sources of freshwater, especially during times of drought. We show that these glaciers lost mass at a rate of about 12 Gt yr-1 for about the period 2013–2021; the rate of mass loss over the period 2018–2022 was similar.
Christina Draeger, Valentina Radić, Rachel H. White, and Mekdes Ayalew Tessema
The Cryosphere, 18, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-17-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-17-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study increases our confidence in using reanalysis data for reconstructions of past glacier melt and in using dynamical downscaling for long-term simulations from global climate models to project glacier melt. We find that the surface energy balance model, forced with reanalysis and dynamically downscaled reanalysis data, yields <10 % difference in the modeled total melt energy when compared to the same model being forced with observations at our glacier sites in western Canada.
Andrew G. Jones, Shaun A. Marcott, Andrew L. Gorin, Tori M. Kennedy, Jeremy D. Shakun, Brent M. Goehring, Brian Menounos, Douglas H. Clark, Matias Romero, and Marc W. Caffee
The Cryosphere, 17, 5459–5475, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5459-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5459-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Mountain glaciers today are fractions of their sizes 140 years ago, but how do these sizes compare to the past 11,000 years? We find that four glaciers in the United States and Canada have reversed a long-term trend of growth and retreated to positions last occupied thousands of years ago. Notably, each glacier occupies a unique position relative to its long-term history. We hypothesize that unequal modern retreat has caused the glaciers to be out of sync relative to their Holocene histories.
Hadleigh D. Thompson, Julie M. Thériault, Stephen J. Déry, Ronald E. Stewart, Dominique Boisvert, Lisa Rickard, Nicolas R. Leroux, Matteo Colli, and Vincent Vionnet
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5785–5806, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5785-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5785-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Saint John River experiment on Cold Season Storms was conducted in northwest New Brunswick, Canada, to investigate the types of precipitation that can lead to ice jams and flooding along the river. We deployed meteorological instruments, took precipitation measurements and photographs of snowflakes, and launched weather balloons. These data will help us to better understand the atmospheric conditions that can affect local communities and townships downstream during the spring melt season.
Adam C. Hawkins, Brian Menounos, Brent M. Goehring, Gerald Osborn, Ben M. Pelto, Christopher M. Darvill, and Joerg M. Schaefer
The Cryosphere, 17, 4381–4397, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4381-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4381-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Our study developed a record of glacier and climate change in the Mackenzie and Selwyn mountains of northwestern Canada over the past several hundred years. We estimate temperature change in this region using several methods and incorporate our glacier record with models of climate change to estimate how glacier volume in our study area has changed over time. Models of future glacier change show that our study area will become largely ice-free by the end of the 21st century.
Sara E. Darychuk, Joseph M. Shea, Brian Menounos, Anna Chesnokova, Georg Jost, and Frank Weber
The Cryosphere, 17, 1457–1473, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1457-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1457-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We use synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) and optical observations to map snowmelt timing and duration on the watershed scale. We found that Sentinel-1 SAR time series can be used to approximate snowmelt onset over diverse terrain and land cover types, and we present a low-cost workflow for SAR processing over large, mountainous regions. Our approach provides spatially distributed observations of the snowpack necessary for model calibration and can be used to monitor snowmelt in ungauged basins.
Jonathan P. Conway, Jakob Abermann, Liss M. Andreassen, Mohd Farooq Azam, Nicolas J. Cullen, Noel Fitzpatrick, Rianne H. Giesen, Kirsty Langley, Shelley MacDonell, Thomas Mölg, Valentina Radić, Carleen H. Reijmer, and Jean-Emmanuel Sicart
The Cryosphere, 16, 3331–3356, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3331-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3331-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We used data from automatic weather stations on 16 glaciers to show how clouds influence glacier melt in different climates around the world. We found surface melt was always more frequent when it was cloudy but was not universally faster or slower than under clear-sky conditions. Also, air temperature was related to clouds in opposite ways in different climates – warmer with clouds in cold climates and vice versa. These results will help us improve how we model past and future glacier melt.
Christophe Kinnard, Olivier Larouche, Michael N. Demuth, and Brian Menounos
The Cryosphere, 16, 3071–3099, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3071-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3071-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study implements a physically based, distributed glacier mass balance model in a context of sparse direct observations. Carefully constraining model parameters with ancillary data allowed for accurately reconstructing the mass balance of Saskatchewan Glacier over a 37-year period. We show that the mass balance sensitivity to warming is dominated by increased melting and that changes in glacier albedo and air humidity are the leading causes of increased glacier melt under warming scenarios.
Brent M. Goehring, Brian Menounos, Gerald Osborn, Adam Hawkins, and Brent Ward
Geochronology, 4, 311–322, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-311-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-311-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We explored surface exposure dating with two nuclides to date two sets of moraines from the Yukon Territory and explain the reasoning for the observed ages. Results suggest multiple processes, including preservation of nuclides from a prior exposure period, and later erosion of the moraines is required to explain the data. Our results only allow for the older moraines to date to Marine Isotope Stage 3 or 4 and the younger moraines to date to the very earliest Holocene.
Sam Anderson and Valentina Radić
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 795–825, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-795-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-795-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We develop and interpret a spatiotemporal deep learning model for regional streamflow prediction at more than 200 stream gauge stations in western Canada. We find the novel modelling style to work very well for daily streamflow prediction. Importantly, we interpret model learning to show that it has learned to focus on physically interpretable and physically relevant information, which is a highly desirable quality of machine-learning-based hydrological models.
Dhiraj Pradhananga, John W. Pomeroy, Caroline Aubry-Wake, D. Scott Munro, Joseph Shea, Michael N. Demuth, Nammy Hang Kirat, Brian Menounos, and Kriti Mukherjee
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 2875–2894, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-2875-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-2875-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents hydrological, meteorological, glaciological and geospatial data of Peyto Glacier Basin in the Canadian Rockies. They include high-resolution DEMs derived from air photos and lidar surveys and long-term hydrological and glaciological model forcing datasets derived from bias-corrected reanalysis products. These data are crucial for studying climate change and variability in the basin and understanding the hydrological responses of the basin to both glacier and climate change.
Julie M. Thériault, Stephen J. Déry, John W. Pomeroy, Hilary M. Smith, Juris Almonte, André Bertoncini, Robert W. Crawford, Aurélie Desroches-Lapointe, Mathieu Lachapelle, Zen Mariani, Selina Mitchell, Jeremy E. Morris, Charlie Hébert-Pinard, Peter Rodriguez, and Hadleigh D. Thompson
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 1233–1249, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-1233-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-1233-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This article discusses the data that were collected during the Storms and Precipitation Across the continental Divide (SPADE) field campaign in spring 2019 in the Canadian Rockies, along the Alberta and British Columbia border. Various instruments were installed at five field sites to gather information about atmospheric conditions focussing on precipitation. Details about the field sites, the instrumentation used, the variables collected, and the collection methods and intervals are presented.
Vincent Vionnet, Christopher B. Marsh, Brian Menounos, Simon Gascoin, Nicholas E. Wayand, Joseph Shea, Kriti Mukherjee, and John W. Pomeroy
The Cryosphere, 15, 743–769, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-743-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-743-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Mountain snow cover provides critical supplies of fresh water to downstream users. Its accurate prediction requires inclusion of often-ignored processes. A multi-scale modelling strategy is presented that efficiently accounts for snow redistribution. Model accuracy is assessed via airborne lidar and optical satellite imagery. With redistribution the model captures the elevation–snow depth relation. Redistribution processes are required to reproduce spatial variability, such as around ridges.
Ben M. Pelto, Brian Menounos, and Shawn J. Marshall
The Cryosphere, 13, 1709–1727, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1709-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1709-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Changes in glacier mass are the direct response to meteorological conditions during the accumulation and melt seasons. We derived multi-year, seasonal mass balance from airborne laser scanning surveys and compared them to field measurements for six glaciers in the Columbia and Rocky Mountains, Canada. Our method can accurately measure seasonal changes in glacier mass and can be easily adapted to derive seasonal mass change for entire mountain ranges.
Noel Fitzpatrick, Valentina Radić, and Brian Menounos
The Cryosphere, 13, 1051–1071, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1051-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1051-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Measurements of surface roughness are rare on glaciers, despite being an important control for heat exchange with the atmosphere and surface melt. In this study, roughness values were determined through measurements at multiple locations and seasons and found to vary across glacier surfaces and to differ from commonly assumed values in melt models. Two new methods that remotely determine roughness from digital elevation models returned good performance and may facilitate improved melt modelling.
Siraj Ul Islam, Charles L. Curry, Stephen J. Déry, and Francis W. Zwiers
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 811–828, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-811-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-811-2019, 2019
Fanny Brun, Patrick Wagnon, Etienne Berthier, Joseph M. Shea, Walter W. Immerzeel, Philip D. A. Kraaijenbrink, Christian Vincent, Camille Reverchon, Dibas Shrestha, and Yves Arnaud
The Cryosphere, 12, 3439–3457, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3439-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3439-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
On debris-covered glaciers, steep ice cliffs experience dramatically enhanced melt compared with the surrounding debris-covered ice. Using field measurements, UAV data and submetre satellite imagery, we estimate the cliff contribution to 2 years of ablation on a debris-covered tongue in Nepal, carefully taking into account ice dynamics. While they occupy only 7 to 8 % of the tongue surface, ice cliffs contributed to 23 to 24 % of the total tongue ablation.
Marco A. Hernández-Henríquez, Aseem R. Sharma, Mark Taylor, Hadleigh D. Thompson, and Stephen J. Déry
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 1655–1672, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-1655-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-1655-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This article presents the development of a sub-hourly database on atmospheric conditions collected at 11 active weather stations in British Columbia's Cariboo Mountains extending from 2006 to present. Air and soil temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, rainfall and snow depth are measured at 15 min intervals. Details on deployment sites, the instrumentation used, the collection and quality control process are provided.
Mekdes Ayalew Tessema, Valentina Radić, Brian Menounos, and Noel Fitzpatrick
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2018-154, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2018-154, 2018
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
To force physics-based models of glacier melt, meteorological variables and energy fluxes are needed at or in vicinity of the glaciers in question. In the absence of observations detailing these variables, the required forcing is commonly derived by downscaling the coarse-resolution output from global climate models (GCMs). This study investigates how the downscaled fields from GCMs can successfully resolve the local processes driving surface melting at three glaciers in British Columbia.
Paul J. Kushner, Lawrence R. Mudryk, William Merryfield, Jaison T. Ambadan, Aaron Berg, Adéline Bichet, Ross Brown, Chris Derksen, Stephen J. Déry, Arlan Dirkson, Greg Flato, Christopher G. Fletcher, John C. Fyfe, Nathan Gillett, Christian Haas, Stephen Howell, Frédéric Laliberté, Kelly McCusker, Michael Sigmond, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Neil F. Tandon, Chad Thackeray, Bruno Tremblay, and Francis W. Zwiers
The Cryosphere, 12, 1137–1156, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1137-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1137-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Here, the Canadian research network CanSISE uses state-of-the-art observations of snow and sea ice to assess how Canada's climate model and climate prediction systems capture variability in snow, sea ice, and related climate parameters. We find that the system performs well, accounting for observational uncertainty (especially for snow), model uncertainty, and chaotic climate variability. Even for variables like sea ice, where improvement is needed, useful prediction tools can be developed.
Randal D. Koster, Alan K. Betts, Paul A. Dirmeyer, Marc Bierkens, Katrina E. Bennett, Stephen J. Déry, Jason P. Evans, Rong Fu, Felipe Hernandez, L. Ruby Leung, Xu Liang, Muhammad Masood, Hubert Savenije, Guiling Wang, and Xing Yuan
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3777–3798, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3777-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3777-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Large-scale hydrological variability can affect society in profound ways; floods and droughts, for example, often cause major damage and hardship. A recent gathering of hydrologists at a symposium to honor the career of Professor Eric Wood motivates the present survey of recent research on this variability. The surveyed literature and the illustrative examples provided in the paper show that research into hydrological variability continues to be strong, vibrant, and multifaceted.
Emmy E. Stigter, Niko Wanders, Tuomo M. Saloranta, Joseph M. Shea, Marc F. P. Bierkens, and Walter W. Immerzeel
The Cryosphere, 11, 1647–1664, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1647-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1647-2017, 2017
Koji Fujita, Hiroshi Inoue, Takeki Izumi, Satoru Yamaguchi, Ayako Sadakane, Sojiro Sunako, Kouichi Nishimura, Walter W. Immerzeel, Joseph M. Shea, Rijan B. Kayastha, Takanobu Sawagaki, David F. Breashears, Hiroshi Yagi, and Akiko Sakai
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 749–764, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-749-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-749-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We create multiple DEMs from photographs taken by helicopter and UAV and reveal the deposit volumes over the Langtang village, which was destroyed by avalanches induced by the Gorkha earthquake. Estimated snow depth in the source area is consistent with anomalously large snow depths observed at a neighboring glacier. Comparing with a long-term observational data, we conclude that this anomalous winter snow amplified the disaster induced by the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal.
Siraj Ul Islam and Stephen J. Déry
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 1827–1847, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1827-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1827-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This study focuses on predictive uncertainties in the snow hydrology of British Columbia's Fraser River Basin (FRB), using the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) model forced with several gridded climate datasets. Intercomparisons of forcing datasets and VIC simulations are performed to identify their strengths and weaknesses. This reveals widespread differences over FRB's mountains in precipitation and air temperature forcing datasets and their VIC simulations of runoff/snow water equivalent.
Tobias Bolch, Tino Pieczonka, Kriti Mukherjee, and Joseph Shea
The Cryosphere, 11, 531–539, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-531-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-531-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Previous geodetic estimates of glacier mass changes in the Karakoram have revealed balanced budgets or a possible slight mass gain since the year ∼ 2000. We used old US reconnaissance imagery and could show that glaciers in the Hunza River basin (Central Karakoram) experienced on average no significant mass changes also since the 1970s. Likewise the glaciers had heterogeneous behaviour with frequent surge activities during the last 40 years.
Stephen J. Déry, Tricia A. Stadnyk, Matthew K. MacDonald, and Bunu Gauli-Sharma
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 4801–4818, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-4801-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-4801-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
This manuscript focuses on observed changes to the hydrology of 42 rivers in northern Canada draining one-half of its land mass over the period 1964–2013. Statistical and trend analyses are presented for the 42 individual rivers, 6 regional drainage basins, and collectively for all of northern Canada. A main finding is the reversal of a statistically significant decline in the first half of the study period to a statistically significant 18.1 % incline in river discharge across northern Canada.
Christian Vincent, Patrick Wagnon, Joseph M. Shea, Walter W. Immerzeel, Philip Kraaijenbrink, Dibas Shrestha, Alvaro Soruco, Yves Arnaud, Fanny Brun, Etienne Berthier, and Sonam Futi Sherpa
The Cryosphere, 10, 1845–1858, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1845-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1845-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Approximately 25 % of the glacierized area in the Everest region is covered by debris, yet the surface mass balance of these glaciers has not been measured directly. From terrestrial photogrammetry and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) methods, this study shows that the ablation is strongly reduced by the debris cover. The insulating effect of the debris cover has a larger effect on total mass loss than the enhanced ice ablation due to supraglacial ponds and exposed ice cliffs.
W. W. Immerzeel, N. Wanders, A. F. Lutz, J. M. Shea, and M. F. P. Bierkens
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 4673–4687, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-4673-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-4673-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
The water resources of the upper Indus river basin (UIB) are important for millions of people, yet little is known about the rain and snow fall in the high-altitude regions because of the inaccessibility, the climatic complexity and the lack of observations. In this study we use mass balance of glaciers to reconstruct the amount of precipitation in the UIB and we conclude that this amount is much higher than previously thought.
J. M. Shea, W. W. Immerzeel, P. Wagnon, C. Vincent, and S. Bajracharya
The Cryosphere, 9, 1105–1128, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1105-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1105-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
A glacier mass balance and redistribution model that integrates field observations and downscaled climate fields is developed to examine glacier sensitivity to future climate in the Everest region of Nepal. The modelled sensitivity of glaciers to future climate change is high, and glacier mass loss is sustained through the 21st century for both middle- and high-emission scenarios. Projected temperature increases will expose large glacier areas to melt and reduce snow accumulations.
K. Rasouli, M. A. Hernández-Henríquez, and S. J. Déry
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 1287–1292, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-1287-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-1287-2015, 2015
F. Brun, M. Dumont, P. Wagnon, E. Berthier, M. F. Azam, J. M. Shea, P. Sirguey, A. Rabatel, and Al. Ramanathan
The Cryosphere, 9, 341–355, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-341-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-341-2015, 2015
M. J. Beedle, B. Menounos, and R. Wheate
The Cryosphere, 9, 65–80, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-65-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-65-2015, 2015
P. Wagnon, C. Vincent, Y. Arnaud, E. Berthier, E. Vuillermoz, S. Gruber, M. Ménégoz, A. Gilbert, M. Dumont, J. M. Shea, D. Stumm, and B. K. Pokhrel
The Cryosphere, 7, 1769–1786, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1769-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1769-2013, 2013
S. H. Mernild, W. H. Lipscomb, D. B. Bahr, V. Radić, and M. Zemp
The Cryosphere, 7, 1565–1577, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1565-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1565-2013, 2013
K. Rasouli, M. A. Hernández-Henríquez, and S. J. Déry
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1681–1691, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-1681-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-1681-2013, 2013
J. M. Shea, B. Menounos, R. D. Moore, and C. Tennant
The Cryosphere, 7, 667–680, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-667-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-667-2013, 2013
C. Tennant, B. Menounos, R. Wheate, and J. J. Clague
The Cryosphere, 6, 1541–1552, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-1541-2012, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-1541-2012, 2012
Related subject area
Energy Balance Obs/Modelling
Brief communication: Accurate and autonomous snow water equivalent measurements using a cosmic ray sensor on a Himalayan glacier
Surface heat fluxes at coarse blocky Murtèl rock glacier (Engadine, eastern Swiss Alps)
Modeling snowpack dynamics and surface energy budget in boreal and subarctic peatlands and forests
Evaluation of reanalysis data and dynamical downscaling for surface energy balance modeling at mountain glaciers in western Canada
Brief communication: Surface energy balance differences over Greenland between ERA5 and ERA-Interim
A computationally efficient statistically downscaled 100 m resolution Greenland product from the regional climate model MAR
Modeling of surface energy balance for Icelandic glaciers using remote-sensing albedo
Strategies for regional modeling of surface mass balance at the Monte Sarmiento Massif, Tierra del Fuego
A sensor-agnostic albedo retrieval method for realistic sea ice surfaces: model and validation
Estimating degree-day factors of snow based on energy flux components
Long-term firn and mass balance modelling for Abramov Glacier in the data-scarce Pamir Alay
The surface energy balance during foehn events at Joyce Glacier, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica
Sub-seasonal variability of supraglacial ice cliff melt rates and associated processes from time-lapse photogrammetry
Understanding wind-driven melt of patchy snow cover
Understanding model spread in sea ice volume by attribution of model differences in seasonal ice growth and melt
An 11-year record of wintertime snow-surface energy balance and sublimation at 4863 m a.s.l. on the Chhota Shigri Glacier moraine (western Himalaya, India)
Sensitivity of modeled snow grain size retrievals to solar geometry, snow particle asphericity, and snowpack impurities
Metamorphism of snow on Arctic sea ice during the melt season: impact on spectral albedo and radiative fluxes through snow
Cloud forcing of surface energy balance from in situ measurements in diverse mountain glacier environments
Modelling glacier mass balance and climate sensitivity in the context of sparse observations: application to Saskatchewan Glacier, western Canada
GABLS4 intercomparison of snow models at Dome C in Antarctica
Divergence of apparent and intrinsic snow albedo over a season at a sub-alpine site with implications for remote sensing
Understanding monsoon controls on the energy and mass balance of glaciers in the Central and Eastern Himalaya
A new Stefan equation to characterize the evolution of thermokarst lake and talik geometry
SNICAR-ADv4: a physically based radiative transfer model to represent the spectral albedo of glacier ice
Convective heat transfer of spring meltwater accelerates active layer phase change in Tibet permafrost areas
Modelling surface temperature and radiation budget of snow-covered complex terrain
Impact of the melt–albedo feedback on the future evolution of the Greenland Ice Sheet with PISM-dEBM-simple
Snow model comparison to simulate snow depth evolution and sublimation at point scale in the semi-arid Andes of Chile
Brief communication: Evaluation of multiple density-dependent empirical snow conductivity relationships in East Antarctica
Sensitivity of the surface energy budget to drifting snow as simulated by MAR in coastal Adelie Land, Antarctica
Firn changes at Colle Gnifetti revealed with a high-resolution process-based physical model approach
The surface energy balance in a cold and arid permafrost environment, Ladakh, Himalayas, India
The diurnal Energy Balance Model (dEBM): a convenient surface mass balance solution for ice sheets in Earth system modeling
Spectral attenuation coefficients from measurements of light transmission in bare ice on the Greenland Ice Sheet
On the statistical properties of sea-ice lead fraction and heat fluxes in the Arctic
Effect of small-scale snow surface roughness on snow albedo and reflectance
New insights into radiative transfer within sea ice derived from autonomous optical propagation measurements
Long-term surface energy balance of the western Greenland Ice Sheet and the role of large-scale circulation variability
Seasonal and interannual variability of melt-season albedo at Haig Glacier, Canadian Rocky Mountains
Surface energy fluxes on Chilean glaciers: measurements and models
Using 3D turbulence-resolving simulations to understand the impact of surface properties on the energy balance of a debris-covered glacier
Incorporating moisture content in surface energy balance modeling of a debris-covered glacier
Surface melt and the importance of water flow – an analysis based on high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) data for an Arctic glacier
Impact of forcing on sublimation simulations for a high mountain catchment in the semiarid Andes
Intercomparison and improvement of two-stream shortwave radiative transfer schemes in Earth system models for a unified treatment of cryospheric surfaces
Water tracks intensify surface energy and mass exchange in the Antarctic McMurdo Dry Valleys
Quantifying the snowmelt–albedo feedback at Neumayer Station, East Antarctica
A key factor initiating surface ablation of Arctic sea ice: earlier and increasing liquid precipitation
Brief communication: An ice surface melt scheme including the diurnal cycle of solar radiation
Navaraj Pokhrel, Patrick Wagnon, Fanny Brun, Arbindra Khadka, Tom Matthews, Audrey Goutard, Dibas Shrestha, Baker Perry, and Marion Réveillet
The Cryosphere, 18, 5913–5920, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5913-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5913-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We studied snow processes in the accumulation area of Mera Glacier (central Himalaya, Nepal) by deploying a cosmic ray counting sensor that allows one to track the evolution of snow water equivalent. We suspect significant surface melting, water percolation, and refreezing within the snowpack, which might be missed by traditional mass balance surveys.
Dominik Amschwand, Martin Scherler, Martin Hoelzle, Bernhard Krummenacher, Anna Haberkorn, Christian Kienholz, and Hansueli Gubler
The Cryosphere, 18, 2103–2139, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2103-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2103-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers are coarse-debris permafrost landforms that are comparatively climate resilient. We estimate the surface energy balance of rock glacier Murtèl (Swiss Alps) based on a large surface and sub-surface sensor array. During the thaw seasons 2021 and 2022, 90 % of the net radiation was exported via turbulent heat fluxes and only 10 % was transmitted towards the ground ice table. However, early snowmelt and droughts make these permafrost landforms vulnerable to climate warming.
Jari-Pekka Nousu, Matthieu Lafaysse, Giulia Mazzotti, Pertti Ala-aho, Hannu Marttila, Bertrand Cluzet, Mika Aurela, Annalea Lohila, Pasi Kolari, Aaron Boone, Mathieu Fructus, and Samuli Launiainen
The Cryosphere, 18, 231–263, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-231-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-231-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The snowpack has a major impact on the land surface energy budget. Accurate simulation of the snowpack energy budget is difficult, and studies that evaluate models against energy budget observations are rare. We compared predictions from well-known models with observations of energy budgets, snow depths and soil temperatures in Finland. Our study identified contrasting strengths and limitations for the models. These results can be used for choosing the right models depending on the use cases.
Christina Draeger, Valentina Radić, Rachel H. White, and Mekdes Ayalew Tessema
The Cryosphere, 18, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-17-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-17-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study increases our confidence in using reanalysis data for reconstructions of past glacier melt and in using dynamical downscaling for long-term simulations from global climate models to project glacier melt. We find that the surface energy balance model, forced with reanalysis and dynamically downscaled reanalysis data, yields <10 % difference in the modeled total melt energy when compared to the same model being forced with observations at our glacier sites in western Canada.
Uta Krebs-Kanzow, Christian B. Rodehacke, and Gerrit Lohmann
The Cryosphere, 17, 5131–5136, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5131-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5131-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We compare components of the surface energy balance from two datasets, ERA5 and ERA-Interim, which can be used to estimate the surface mass balance (SMB) on the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS). ERA5 differs significantly from ERA-Interim, especially in the melt regions with lower temperatures and stronger shortwave radiation. Consequently, methods that previously estimated the GrIS SMB from ERA-Interim need to be carefully recalibrated before conversion to ERA5 forcing.
Marco Tedesco, Paolo Colosio, Xavier Fettweis, and Guido Cervone
The Cryosphere, 17, 5061–5074, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5061-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5061-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We developed a technique to improve the outputs of a model that calculates the gain and loss of Greenland and consequently its contribution to sea level rise. Our technique generates “sharper” images of the maps generated by the model to better understand and quantify where losses occur. This has implications for improving models, understanding what drives the contributions of Greenland to sea level rise, and more.
Andri Gunnarsson, Sigurdur M. Gardarsson, and Finnur Pálsson
The Cryosphere, 17, 3955–3986, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3955-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3955-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A model was developed with the possibility of utilizing satellite-derived daily surface albedo driven by high-resolution climate data to estimate the surface energy balance (SEB) for all Icelandic glaciers for the period 2000–2021.
Franziska Temme, David Farías-Barahona, Thorsten Seehaus, Ricardo Jaña, Jorge Arigony-Neto, Inti Gonzalez, Anselm Arndt, Tobias Sauter, Christoph Schneider, and Johannes J. Fürst
The Cryosphere, 17, 2343–2365, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2343-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2343-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Calibration of surface mass balance (SMB) models on regional scales is challenging. We investigate different calibration strategies with the goal of achieving realistic simulations of the SMB in the Monte Sarmiento Massif, Tierra del Fuego. Our results show that the use of regional observations from satellite data can improve the model performance. Furthermore, we compare four melt models of different complexity to understand the benefit of increasing the processes considered in the model.
Yingzhen Zhou, Wei Li, Nan Chen, Yongzhen Fan, and Knut Stamnes
The Cryosphere, 17, 1053–1087, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1053-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1053-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present a method to compute albedo (percentage of the light reflected) of the cryosphere surface using observations from optical satellite sensors. This method can be applied to sea ice, snow-covered ice, melt pond, open ocean, and mixtures thereof. Evaluation of the albedo values calculated using this approach demonstrated excellent agreement with observations. In addition, we have included a statistical comparison of the proposed method's results with those derived from other approaches.
Muhammad Fraz Ismail, Wolfgang Bogacki, Markus Disse, Michael Schäfer, and Lothar Kirschbauer
The Cryosphere, 17, 211–231, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-211-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-211-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Fresh water from mountainous catchments in the form of snowmelt and ice melt is of critical importance especially in the summer season for people living in these regions. In general, limited data availability is the core concern while modelling the snow and ice melt components from these mountainous catchments. This research will be helpful in selecting realistic parameter values (i.e. degree-day factor) while calibrating the temperature-index models for data-scarce regions.
Marlene Kronenberg, Ward van Pelt, Horst Machguth, Joel Fiddes, Martin Hoelzle, and Felix Pertziger
The Cryosphere, 16, 5001–5022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-5001-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-5001-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Pamir Alay is located at the edge of regions with anomalous glacier mass changes. Unique long-term in situ data are available for Abramov Glacier, located in the Pamir Alay. In this study, we use this extraordinary data set in combination with reanalysis data and a coupled surface energy balance–multilayer subsurface model to compute and analyse the distributed climatic mass balance and firn evolution from 1968 to 2020.
Marte G. Hofsteenge, Nicolas J. Cullen, Carleen H. Reijmer, Michiel van den Broeke, Marwan Katurji, and John F. Orwin
The Cryosphere, 16, 5041–5059, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-5041-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-5041-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV), foehn winds can impact glacial meltwater production and the fragile ecosystem that depends on it. We study these dry and warm winds at Joyce Glacier and show they are caused by a different mechanism than that found for nearby valleys, demonstrating the complex interaction of large-scale winds with the mountains in the MDV. We find that foehn winds increase sublimation of ice, increase heating from the atmosphere, and increase the occurrence and rates of melt.
Marin Kneib, Evan S. Miles, Pascal Buri, Stefan Fugger, Michael McCarthy, Thomas E. Shaw, Zhao Chuanxi, Martin Truffer, Matthew J. Westoby, Wei Yang, and Francesca Pellicciotti
The Cryosphere, 16, 4701–4725, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4701-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4701-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Ice cliffs are believed to be important contributors to the melt of debris-covered glaciers, but this has rarely been quantified as the cliffs can disappear or rapidly expand within a few weeks. We used photogrammetry techniques to quantify the weekly evolution and melt of four cliffs. We found that their behaviour and melt during the monsoon is strongly controlled by supraglacial debris, streams and ponds, thus providing valuable insights on the melt and evolution of debris-covered glaciers.
Luuk D. van der Valk, Adriaan J. Teuling, Luc Girod, Norbert Pirk, Robin Stoffer, and Chiel C. van Heerwaarden
The Cryosphere, 16, 4319–4341, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4319-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4319-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Most large-scale hydrological and climate models struggle to capture the spatially highly variable wind-driven melt of patchy snow cover. In the field, we find that 60 %–80 % of the total melt is wind driven at the upwind edge of a snow patch, while it does not contribute at the downwind edge. Our idealized simulations show that the variation is due to a patch-size-independent air-temperature reduction over snow patches and also allow us to study the role of wind-driven snowmelt on larger scales.
Alex West, Edward Blockley, and Matthew Collins
The Cryosphere, 16, 4013–4032, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4013-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4013-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we explore a method of examining model differences in ice volume by looking at the seasonal ice growth and melt. We use simple physical relationships to judge how model differences in key variables affect ice growth and melt and apply these to three case study models with ice volume ranging from very thin to very thick. Results suggest that differences in snow and melt pond cover in early summer are most important in causing the sea ice differences for these models.
Arindan Mandal, Thupstan Angchuk, Mohd Farooq Azam, Alagappan Ramanathan, Patrick Wagnon, Mohd Soheb, and Chetan Singh
The Cryosphere, 16, 3775–3799, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3775-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3775-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Snow sublimation is an important component of glacier surface mass balance; however, it is seldom studied in detail in the Himalayan region owing to data scarcity. We present an 11-year record of wintertime snow-surface energy balance and sublimation characteristics at the Chhota Shigri Glacier moraine site at 4863 m a.s.l. The estimated winter sublimation is 16 %–42 % of the winter snowfall at the study site, which signifies how sublimation is important in the Himalayan region.
Zachary Fair, Mark Flanner, Adam Schneider, and S. McKenzie Skiles
The Cryosphere, 16, 3801–3814, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3801-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3801-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Snow grain size is important to determine the age and structure of snow, but it is difficult to measure. Snow grain size can be found from airborne and spaceborne observations by measuring near-infrared energy reflected from snow. In this study, we use the SNICAR radiative transfer model and a Monte Carlo model to examine how snow grain size measurements change with snow structure and solar zenith angle. We show that improved understanding of these variables improves snow grain size precision.
Gauthier Vérin, Florent Domine, Marcel Babin, Ghislain Picard, and Laurent Arnaud
The Cryosphere, 16, 3431–3449, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3431-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3431-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Snow physical properties on Arctic sea ice are monitored during the melt season. As snow grains grow, and the snowpack thickness is reduced, the surface albedo decreases. The extra absorbed energy accelerates melting. Radiative transfer modeling shows that more radiation is then transmitted to the snow–sea-ice interface. A sharp increase in transmitted radiation takes place when the snowpack thins significantly, and this coincides with the initiation of the phytoplankton bloom in the seawater.
Jonathan P. Conway, Jakob Abermann, Liss M. Andreassen, Mohd Farooq Azam, Nicolas J. Cullen, Noel Fitzpatrick, Rianne H. Giesen, Kirsty Langley, Shelley MacDonell, Thomas Mölg, Valentina Radić, Carleen H. Reijmer, and Jean-Emmanuel Sicart
The Cryosphere, 16, 3331–3356, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3331-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3331-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We used data from automatic weather stations on 16 glaciers to show how clouds influence glacier melt in different climates around the world. We found surface melt was always more frequent when it was cloudy but was not universally faster or slower than under clear-sky conditions. Also, air temperature was related to clouds in opposite ways in different climates – warmer with clouds in cold climates and vice versa. These results will help us improve how we model past and future glacier melt.
Christophe Kinnard, Olivier Larouche, Michael N. Demuth, and Brian Menounos
The Cryosphere, 16, 3071–3099, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3071-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3071-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study implements a physically based, distributed glacier mass balance model in a context of sparse direct observations. Carefully constraining model parameters with ancillary data allowed for accurately reconstructing the mass balance of Saskatchewan Glacier over a 37-year period. We show that the mass balance sensitivity to warming is dominated by increased melting and that changes in glacier albedo and air humidity are the leading causes of increased glacier melt under warming scenarios.
Patrick Le Moigne, Eric Bazile, Anning Cheng, Emanuel Dutra, John M. Edwards, William Maurel, Irina Sandu, Olivier Traullé, Etienne Vignon, Ayrton Zadra, and Weizhong Zheng
The Cryosphere, 16, 2183–2202, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2183-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2183-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This paper describes an intercomparison of snow models, of varying complexity, used for numerical weather prediction or academic research. The results show that the simplest models are, under certain conditions, able to reproduce the surface temperature just as well as the most complex models. Moreover, the diversity of surface parameters of the models has a strong impact on the temporal variability of the components of the simulated surface energy balance.
Edward H. Bair, Jeff Dozier, Charles Stern, Adam LeWinter, Karl Rittger, Alexandria Savagian, Timbo Stillinger, and Robert E. Davis
The Cryosphere, 16, 1765–1778, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1765-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1765-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding how snow and ice reflect solar radiation (albedo) is important for global climate. Using high-resolution topography, darkening from surface roughness (apparent albedo) is separated from darkening by the composition of the snow (intrinsic albedo). Intrinsic albedo is usually greater than apparent albedo, especially during melt. Such high-resolution topography is often not available; thus the use of a shade component when modeling mixtures is advised.
Stefan Fugger, Catriona L. Fyffe, Simone Fatichi, Evan Miles, Michael McCarthy, Thomas E. Shaw, Baohong Ding, Wei Yang, Patrick Wagnon, Walter Immerzeel, Qiao Liu, and Francesca Pellicciotti
The Cryosphere, 16, 1631–1652, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1631-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1631-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The monsoon is important for the shrinking and growing of glaciers in the Himalaya during summer. We calculate the melt of seven glaciers in the region using a complex glacier melt model and weather data. We find that monsoonal weather affects glaciers that are covered with a layer of rocky debris and glaciers without such a layer in different ways. It is important to take so-called turbulent fluxes into account. This knowledge is vital for predicting the future of the Himalayan glaciers.
Noriaki Ohara, Benjamin M. Jones, Andrew D. Parsekian, Kenneth M. Hinkel, Katsu Yamatani, Mikhail Kanevskiy, Rodrigo C. Rangel, Amy L. Breen, and Helena Bergstedt
The Cryosphere, 16, 1247–1264, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1247-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1247-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
New variational principle suggests that a semi-ellipsoid talik shape (3D Stefan equation) is optimum for incoming energy. However, the lake bathymetry tends to be less ellipsoidal due to the ice-rich layers near the surface. Wind wave erosion is likely responsible for the elongation of lakes, while thaw subsidence slows the wave effect and stabilizes the thermokarst lakes. The derived 3D Stefan equation was compared to the field-observed talik thickness data using geophysical methods.
Chloe A. Whicker, Mark G. Flanner, Cheng Dang, Charles S. Zender, Joseph M. Cook, and Alex S. Gardner
The Cryosphere, 16, 1197–1220, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1197-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1197-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Snow and ice surfaces are important to the global climate. Current climate models use measurements to determine the reflectivity of ice. This model uses physical properties to determine the reflectivity of snow, ice, and darkly pigmented impurities that reside within the snow and ice. Therefore, the modeled reflectivity is more accurate for snow/ice columns under varying climate conditions. This model paves the way for improvements in the portrayal of snow and ice within global climate models.
Yi Zhao, Zhuotong Nan, Hailong Ji, and Lin Zhao
The Cryosphere, 16, 825–849, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-825-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-825-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Convective heat transfer (CHT) is important in affecting thermal regimes in permafrost regions. We quantified its thermal impacts by contrasting the simulation results from three scenarios in which the Simultaneous Heat and Water model includes full, partial, and no consideration of CHT. The results show the CHT commonly happens in shallow and middle soil depths during thawing periods and has greater impacts in spring than summer. The CHT has both heating and cooling effects on the active layer.
Alvaro Robledano, Ghislain Picard, Laurent Arnaud, Fanny Larue, and Inès Ollivier
The Cryosphere, 16, 559–579, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-559-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-559-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Topography controls the surface temperature of snow-covered, mountainous areas. We developed a modelling chain that uses ray-tracing methods to quantify the impact of a few topographic effects on snow surface temperature at high spatial resolution. Its large spatial and temporal variations are correctly simulated over a 50 km2 area in the French Alps, and our results show that excluding a single topographic effect results in cooling (or warming) effects on the order of 1 °C.
Maria Zeitz, Ronja Reese, Johanna Beckmann, Uta Krebs-Kanzow, and Ricarda Winkelmann
The Cryosphere, 15, 5739–5764, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5739-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5739-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
With the increasing melt of the Greenland Ice Sheet, which contributes to sea level rise, the surface of the ice darkens. The dark surfaces absorb more radiation and thus experience increased melt, resulting in the melt–albedo feedback. Using a simple surface melt model, we estimate that this positive feedback contributes to an additional 60 % ice loss in a high-warming scenario and additional 90 % ice loss for moderate warming. Albedo changes are important for Greenland’s future ice loss.
Annelies Voordendag, Marion Réveillet, Shelley MacDonell, and Stef Lhermitte
The Cryosphere, 15, 4241–4259, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4241-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4241-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The sensitivity of two snow models (SNOWPACK and SnowModel) to various parameterizations and atmospheric forcing biases is assessed in the semi-arid Andes of Chile in winter 2017. Models show that sublimation is a main driver of ablation and that its relative contribution to total ablation is highly sensitive to the selected albedo parameterization and snow roughness length. The forcing and parameterizations are more important than the model choice, despite differences in physical complexity.
Minghu Ding, Tong Zhang, Diyi Yang, Ian Allison, Tingfeng Dou, and Cunde Xiao
The Cryosphere, 15, 4201–4206, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4201-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4201-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Measurement of snow heat conductivity is essential to establish the energy balance between the atmosphere and firn, but it is still not clear in Antarctica. Here, we used data from three automatic weather stations located in different types of climate and evaluated nine schemes that were used to calculate the effective heat diffusivity of snow. The best solution was proposed. However, no conductivity–density relationship was optimal at all sites, and the performance of each varied with depth.
Louis Le Toumelin, Charles Amory, Vincent Favier, Christoph Kittel, Stefan Hofer, Xavier Fettweis, Hubert Gallée, and Vinay Kayetha
The Cryosphere, 15, 3595–3614, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3595-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3595-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Snow is frequently eroded from the surface by the wind in Adelie Land (Antarctica) and suspended in the lower atmosphere. By performing model simulations, we show firstly that suspended snow layers interact with incoming radiation similarly to a near-surface cloud. Secondly, suspended snow modifies the atmosphere's thermodynamic structure and energy exchanges with the surface. Our results suggest snow transport by the wind should be taken into account in future model studies over the region.
Enrico Mattea, Horst Machguth, Marlene Kronenberg, Ward van Pelt, Manuela Bassi, and Martin Hoelzle
The Cryosphere, 15, 3181–3205, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3181-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3181-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In our study we find that climate change is affecting the high-alpine Colle Gnifetti glacier (Swiss–Italian Alps) with an increase in melt amounts and ice temperatures.
In the near future this trend could threaten the viability of the oldest ice core record in the Alps.
To reach our conclusions, for the first time we used the meteorological data of the highest permanent weather station in Europe (Capanna Margherita, 4560 m), together with an advanced numeric simulation of the glacier.
John Mohd Wani, Renoj J. Thayyen, Chandra Shekhar Prasad Ojha, and Stephan Gruber
The Cryosphere, 15, 2273–2293, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2273-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2273-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We study the surface energy balance from a cold-arid permafrost environment in the Indian Himalayan region. The GEOtop model was used for the modelling of surface energy balance. Our results show that the variability in the turbulent heat fluxes is similar to that reported from the seasonally frozen ground and permafrost regions of the Tibetan Plateau. Further, the low relative humidity could be playing a critical role in the surface energy balance and the permafrost processes.
Uta Krebs-Kanzow, Paul Gierz, Christian B. Rodehacke, Shan Xu, Hu Yang, and Gerrit Lohmann
The Cryosphere, 15, 2295–2313, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2295-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2295-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The surface mass balance scheme dEBM (diurnal Energy Balance Model) provides a novel, computationally inexpensive interface between the atmosphere and land ice for Earth system modeling. The dEBM is particularly suitable for Earth system modeling on multi-millennial timescales as it accounts for changes in the Earth's orbit and atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration.
Matthew G. Cooper, Laurence C. Smith, Asa K. Rennermalm, Marco Tedesco, Rohi Muthyala, Sasha Z. Leidman, Samiah E. Moustafa, and Jessica V. Fayne
The Cryosphere, 15, 1931–1953, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1931-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1931-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We measured sunlight transmitted into glacier ice to improve models of glacier ice melt and satellite measurements of glacier ice surfaces. We found that very small concentrations of impurities inside the ice increase absorption of sunlight, but the amount was small enough to enable an estimate of ice absorptivity. We confirmed earlier results that the absorption minimum is near 390 nm. We also found that a layer of highly reflective granular "white ice" near the surface reduces transmittance.
Einar Ólason, Pierre Rampal, and Véronique Dansereau
The Cryosphere, 15, 1053–1064, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1053-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1053-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We analyse the fractal properties observed in the pattern of the long, narrow openings that form in Arctic sea ice known as leads. We use statistical tools to explore the fractal properties of the lead fraction observed in satellite data and show that our sea-ice model neXtSIM displays the same behaviour. Building on this result we then show that the pattern of heat loss from ocean to atmosphere in the model displays similar fractal properties, stemming from the fractal properties of the leads.
Terhikki Manninen, Kati Anttila, Emmihenna Jääskeläinen, Aku Riihelä, Jouni Peltoniemi, Petri Räisänen, Panu Lahtinen, Niilo Siljamo, Laura Thölix, Outi Meinander, Anna Kontu, Hanne Suokanerva, Roberta Pirazzini, Juha Suomalainen, Teemu Hakala, Sanna Kaasalainen, Harri Kaartinen, Antero Kukko, Olivier Hautecoeur, and Jean-Louis Roujean
The Cryosphere, 15, 793–820, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-793-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-793-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The primary goal of this paper is to present a model of snow surface albedo (brightness) accounting for small-scale surface roughness effects. It can be combined with any volume scattering model. The results indicate that surface roughness may decrease the albedo by about 1–3 % in midwinter and even more than 10 % during the late melting season. The effect is largest for low solar zenith angle values and lower bulk snow albedo values.
Christian Katlein, Lovro Valcic, Simon Lambert-Girard, and Mario Hoppmann
The Cryosphere, 15, 183–198, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-183-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-183-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
To improve autonomous investigations of sea ice optical properties, we designed a chain of multispectral light sensors, providing autonomous in-ice light measurements. Here we describe the system and the data acquired from a first prototype deployment. We show that sideward-looking planar irradiance sensors basically measure scalar irradiance and demonstrate the use of this sensor chain to derive light transmittance and inherent optical properties of sea ice.
Baojuan Huai, Michiel R. van den Broeke, and Carleen H. Reijmer
The Cryosphere, 14, 4181–4199, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4181-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4181-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents the surface energy balance (SEB) of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) using a SEB model forced with observations from automatic weather stations (AWSs). We correlate ERA5 with AWSs to show a significant positive correlation of GrIS summer surface temperature and melt with the Greenland Blocking Index and weaker and opposite correlations with the North Atlantic Oscillation. This analysis may help explain melting patterns in the GrIS with respect to circulation anomalies.
Shawn J. Marshall and Kristina Miller
The Cryosphere, 14, 3249–3267, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3249-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3249-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Surface-albedo measurements from 2002 to 2017 from Haig Glacier in the Canadian Rockies provide no evidence of long-term trends (i.e., the glacier does not appear to be darkening), but there are large variations in albedo over the melt season and from year to year. The glacier ice is exceptionally dark in association with forest fire fallout but is effectively cleansed by meltwater or rainfall. Summer snowfall plays an important role in refreshing the glacier surface and reducing summer melt.
Marius Schaefer, Duilio Fonseca-Gallardo, David Farías-Barahona, and Gino Casassa
The Cryosphere, 14, 2545–2565, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2545-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2545-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Chile hosts glaciers in a large range of latitudes and climates. To project future ice extent, a sound quantification of the energy exchange between atmosphere and glaciers is needed. We present new data for six Chilean glaciers belonging to three glaciological zones. In the Central Andes, the main energy source for glacier melt is the incoming solar radiation, while in southern Patagonia heat provided by the mild and humid air is also important. Total melt rates are higher in Patagonia.
Pleun N. J. Bonekamp, Chiel C. van Heerwaarden, Jakob F. Steiner, and Walter W. Immerzeel
The Cryosphere, 14, 1611–1632, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1611-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1611-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Drivers controlling melt of debris-covered glaciers are largely unknown. With a 3D turbulence-resolving model the impact of surface properties of debris on micrometeorological variables and the conductive heat flux is shown. Also, we show ice cliffs are local melt hot spots and that turbulent fluxes and local heat advection amplify spatial heterogeneity on the surface.This work is important for glacier mass balance modelling and for the understanding of the evolution of debris-covered glaciers.
Alexandra Giese, Aaron Boone, Patrick Wagnon, and Robert Hawley
The Cryosphere, 14, 1555–1577, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1555-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1555-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Rocky debris on glacier surfaces is known to affect the melt of mountain glaciers. Debris can be dry or filled to varying extents with liquid water and ice; whether debris is dry, wet, and/or icy affects how efficiently heat is conducted through debris from its surface to the ice interface. Our paper presents a new energy balance model that simulates moisture phase, evolution, and location in debris. ISBA-DEB is applied to West Changri Nup glacier in Nepal to reveal important physical processes.
Eleanor A. Bash and Brian J. Moorman
The Cryosphere, 14, 549–563, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-549-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-549-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
High-resolution measurements from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery allowed for examination of glacier melt model performance in detail at Fountain Glacier. This work capitalized on distributed measurements at 10 cm resolution to look at the spatial distribution of model errors in the ablation zone. Although the model agreed with measurements on average, strong correlation was found with surface water. The results highlight the contribution of surface water flow to melt at this location.
Marion Réveillet, Shelley MacDonell, Simon Gascoin, Christophe Kinnard, Stef Lhermitte, and Nicole Schaffer
The Cryosphere, 14, 147–163, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-147-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-147-2020, 2020
Cheng Dang, Charles S. Zender, and Mark G. Flanner
The Cryosphere, 13, 2325–2343, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2325-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2325-2019, 2019
Tobias Linhardt, Joseph S. Levy, and Christoph K. Thomas
The Cryosphere, 13, 2203–2219, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2203-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2203-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents surface energy fluxes in an Antarctic polar desert in the summer season, comparing wetted soil at a water track with dominating dry soils. Elevated energy uptake, evaporation, and soil heat fluxes at the water track highlight the importance of wetted soils for water and energy cycling in polar deserts. This connection will grow more relevant, as wetted soils are expected to expand due to climate warming, with implications for landscape-scale hydrology and soil ecosystems.
Constantijn L. Jakobs, Carleen H. Reijmer, Peter Kuipers Munneke, Gert König-Langlo, and Michiel R. van den Broeke
The Cryosphere, 13, 1473–1485, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1473-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1473-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We use 24 years of observations at Neumayer Station, East Antarctica, to calculate the surface energy balance and the associated surface melt, which we find to be mainly driven by the absorption of solar radiation. Meltwater can refreeze in the subsurface snow layers, thereby decreasing the surface albedo and hence allowing for more absorption of solar radiation. By implementing an albedo parameterisation, we show that this feedback accounts for a threefold increase in surface melt at Neumayer.
Tingfeng Dou, Cunde Xiao, Jiping Liu, Wei Han, Zhiheng Du, Andrew R. Mahoney, Joshua Jones, and Hajo Eicken
The Cryosphere, 13, 1233–1246, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1233-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1233-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The variability and potential trends of rain-on-snow events over Arctic sea ice and their role in sea-ice losses are poorly understood. This study demonstrates that rain-on-snow events are a critical factor in initiating the onset of surface melt over Arctic sea ice, and onset of spring rainfall over sea ice has shifted to earlier dates since the 1970s, which may have profound impacts on ice melt through feedbacks involving earlier onset of surface melt.
Uta Krebs-Kanzow, Paul Gierz, and Gerrit Lohmann
The Cryosphere, 12, 3923–3930, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3923-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3923-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new surface melt scheme for land ice. Derived from the energy balance of melting surfaces, the scheme may be particularly suitable for long ice-sheet simulations of past and future climates. It is computationally inexpensive and can be adapted to changes in the Earth's orbit and atmospheric composition. The scheme yields a better spatial representation of surface melt than common empirical schemes when applied to the Greenland Ice Sheet under present-day climate conditions.
Cited articles
Anderson, B., Mackintosh, A., Stumm, D., George, L., Kerr, T., Winter-Billington, A., and Fitzsimons, S.: Climate sensitivity of a high-precipitation glacier in New Zealand, J. Glaciol., 56, 114–128, 2010.
Andreas, E.: A theory for the scalar roughness and the scalar transfer coefficient over snow and sea ice, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 38, 159–184, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00121562, 1987.
Andreas, E. L., Persson, P. O. G., Jordan, R. E., Horst, T. W., Guest, P. S., Grachev, A. A., and Fairall, C. W.: Parameterizing Turbulent Exchange over Sea Ice in Winter, J. Hydrometeorol., 11, 87–104, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JHM1102.1, 2010.
Arya, S. P.: Introduction to Micrometeorology, Academic Press, San Diego, 415 pp., 2001.
Axelsen, S. L. and van Dop, H.: Large-eddy simulation of katabatic winds, Part 1: Comparison with observations, Acta Geophys., 57, 803–836, https://doi.org/10.2478/s11600-009-0041-6, 2009.
Beedle, M. J., Menounos, B., and Wheate, R.: An evaluation of mass-balance methods applied to Castle Creek Glacier, British Columbia, Canada, J. Glaciol., 60, 262–276, https://doi.org/10.3189/2014JoG13J091, 2014.
Berkowicz, R. and Prahm, L. P.: Evaluation of the profile method for estimation of surface fluxes of momentum and heat, Atmos. Environ., 16, 2809–2819, 1982.
Bevington, P. R.: Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences, McGraw-Hill, New York, 320 pp., 1969.
Bintanja, R. and van den Broeke, M.: Momentum and scalar transfer coefficients over aerodynamically smooth Antarctic surfaces, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 74, 89–111, 1995.
Braithwaite, R.: Aerodynamic stability and turbulent sensible-heat flux over a melting ice surface, the Greenland ice sheet, J. Glaciol., 41, 562–571, 1995.
Braithwaite, R., Konzelmann, T., Marty, C., and Olesen, O.: Reconnaissance study of glacier energy balance in North Greenland, 1993–94, J. Glaciol., 44, 239–247, 1998.
Burba, G.: Eddy Covariance Method for Scientific, Industrial, Agricultural, and Regulatory Applications: A Field Book on Measuring Ecosystem Gas Exchange and Areal Emission Rates, LI-COR Biosciences, Lincoln, NE, USA, 331 pp., 2013.
Businger, J., Wyngaard, J., Izumi, Y., and Bradley, E.: Flux-profile relationships in the atmospheric surface layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 181–189, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<0181:FPRITA>2.0.CO;2, 1971.
Clarke, G. K. C., Jarosch, A. H., Anslow, F. S., Radić, V., and Menounos, B.: Projected deglaciation of western Canada in the twenty-first century, Nat. Geosci., 8, 372–377, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO2407, 2015.
Conway, J. and Cullen, N.: Constraining turbulent heat flux parameterization over a temperate maritime glacier in New Zealand, Ann. Glaciol., 54, 41–51, https://doi.org/10.3189/2013AoG63A604, 2013.
Cullen, N. J., Mölg, T., Kaser, G., Steffen, K., and Hardy, D. R.: Energy-balance model validation on the top of Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, using eddy covariance data, Ann. Glaciol., 46, 227–233, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756407782871224, 2007.
Denby, B. and Greuell, W.: The use of bulk and profile methods for determining surface heat fluxes in the presence of glacier winds, J. Glaciol., 46, 445–452, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756500781833124, 2000.
Déry, S. J., Clifton, A., MacLeod, S., and Beedle, M. J.: Blowing Snow Fluxes in the Cariboo Mountains of British Columbia, Canada, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 42, 188–197, https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-42.2.188, 2010.
Dyer, A.: A review of flux-profile-relationships, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 7, 363–372, 1974.
Fairall, C., Persson, P., Bradley, E., Payne, R., and Anderson, S.: A new look at calibration and use of Eppley precision infrared radiometers, Part I: Theory and application, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 15, 1229–1242, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<1229:ANLACA>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Fitzpatrick, N., Radić, V., and Menounos, B.: Surface Energy Balance Closure and Turbulent Flux Parameterization on a Mid-Latitude Mountain Glacier, Purcell Mountains, Canada, Front. Earth Sci., 5, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2017.00067, 2017.
Foken, T.: Micrometeorology, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 308 pp., 2008.
Forrer, J. and Rotach, M.: On the turbulence structure in the stable boundary layer over the Greenland ice sheet, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 85, 111–136, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1000466827210, 1997.
Gillett, S. and Cullen, N. J.: Atmospheric controls on summer ablation over Brewster Glacier, New Zealand, Int. J. Climatol., 31, 2033–2048, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2216, 2011.
Grachev, A. A., Andreas, E. L., Fairall, C. W., Guest, P. S., and Persson, P. O. G.: On the turbulent Prandtl number in the stable atmospheric boundary layer, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 125, 329–341, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-007-9192-7, 2007.
Greuell, J. W., van den Broeke, M., Knao, W., Reijmer, C., Smeets, P., and Struijk, I.: PASTEX: A Glacio-Meteorological Experiment on the Pasterze (Austria), Field Report, Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, Utrecht University, p. 34, 1994.
Greuell, W. and Oerlemans, J.: Energy balance calculations on and near Hintereisferner (Austria) and an estimate of the effect of greenhouse warming on ablation, in: Glacier fluctuations and climatic change, edited by: Oerlemans, J., Glaciology and Quaternary Geology, 6, 305–323, 1989.
Grisogono, B. and Oerlemans, J.: Katabatic flow: Analytic solution for gradually varying eddy diffusivities, J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 3349–3354, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2001)058<3349:KFASFG>2.0.CO;2, 2001.
Guo, X., Yang, K., Zhao, L., Yang, W., Li, S., Zhu, M., Yao, T., and Chen, Y.: Critical Evaluation of Scalar Roughness Length Parametrizations Over a Melting Valley Glacier, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 139, 307–332, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-010-9586-9, 2011.
Harrison, R.: Natural ventilation effects on temperatures within Stevenson screens, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 136, 253–259, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.537, 2010.
Hay, J. and Fitzharris, B.: A comparison of the energy-balance and bulk-aerodynamic approaches for estimating glacier melt, J. Glaciol., 34, 145–153, 1988.
Hock, R.: Glacier melt: a review of processes and their modelling, Prog. Phys. Geog., 29, 362–391, https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133305pp453ra, 2005.
Hock, R. and Holmgren, B.: Some aspects of energy balance and ablation of Storglaciaren, northern Sweden, Geogr. Ann. A, 78, 121–131, https://doi.org/10.2307/520974, 1996.
Hock, R. and Holmgren, B.: A distributed surface energy-balance model for complex topography and its application to Storglaciaren, Sweden, J. Glaciol., 51, 25–36, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756505781829566, 2005.
Holtslag, A. and de Bruin, H.: Applied modeling of the nighttime surface energy balance over land, J. Appl. Meteorol., 27, 689–704, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1988)027<0689:AMOTNS>2.0.CO;2, 1988.
Horst, T. W. and Lenschow, D. H.: Attenuation of Scalar Fluxes Measured with Spatially-displaced Sensors, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 130, 275–300, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-008-9348-0, 2009.
Huintjes, E., Neckel, N., Hochschild, V., and Schneider, C.: Surface energy and mass balance at Purogangri ice cap, central Tibetan Plateau, 2001–2011, J. Glaciol., 61, 1048–1060, https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG15J056, 2015.
Hulth, J., Rolstad, C., Trondsen, K., and Rodby, R. W.: Surface mass and energy balance of Sorbreen, Jan Mayen, 2008, Ann. Glaciol., 51, 110–119, 2010.
Huwald, H., Higgins, C. W., Boldi, M.-O., Bou-Zeid, E., Lehning, M., and Parlange, M. B.: Albedo effect on radiative errors in air temperature measurements, Water Resour. Res., 45, W08431, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008WR007600, 2009.
Ibrom, A., Dellwik, E., Flyvbjerg, H., Jensen, N. O., and Pilegaard, K.: Strong low-pass filtering effects on water vapour flux measurements with closed-path eddy correlation systems, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 147, 140–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2007.07.007, 2007.
Jarosch, A. H., Anslow, F., and Shea, J.: A versatile tower platform for glacier instrumentation: GPS and Eddy Covariance Measurements, extended abstracts and recommendations from the IASC Workshop on the Use of Automatic Measuring Systems on Glaciers, Pontresina, Switzerland, 23–26 March 2011, 52–55, 2011.
Klok, E. J., Nolan, M., and Van den Broeke, M. R.: Analysis of meteorological data and the surface energy balance of McCall Glacier, Alaska, USA, J. Glaciol., 51, 451–461, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756505781829241, 2005.
Konzelmann, T. and Braithwaite, R.: Variations of ablation, albedo and energy balance at the margin of the Greenland ice sheet, Kronprins Christian Land, eastern north Greenland, J. Glaciol., 41, 174–182, 1995.
Lee, C. B.: Simple model and climatological aspects of the structure of the convective boundary layer, Atmos. Environ., 20, 705–714, 1986.
Lettau, H.: Atmosphärische Turbulenz, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 283 pp., 1934.
Li, Z., Lyu, S., Zhao, L., Wen, L., Ao, Y., and Wang, S.: Turbulent transfer coefficient and roughness length in a high-altitude lake, Tibetan Plateau, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 124, 723–735, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-015-1440-z, 2016.
MacDougall, A. H. and Flowers, G. E.: Spatial and Temporal Transferability of a Distributed Energy-Balance Glacier Melt Model, J. Climate, 24, 1480–1498, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3821.1, 2011.
Machguth, H., Paul, F., Hoelzle, M., and Haeberli, W.: Distributed glacier mass-balance modelling as an important component of modern multi-level glacier monitoring, Ann. Glaciol., 43, 335–343, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756406781812285, 2006.
Mölg, T., Cullen, N. J., Hardy, D. R., Kaser, G., and Klok, L.: Mass balance of a slope glacier on Kilimanjaro and its sensitivity to climate, Int. J. Climatol., 28, 881–892, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1589, 2008.
Mölg, T., Cullen, N. J., Hardy, D. R., Winkler, M., and Kaser, G.: Quantifying Climate Change in the Tropical Midtroposphere over East Africa from Glacier Shrinkage on Kilimanjaro, J. Climate, 22, 4162–4181, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2954.1, 2009.
Moncrieff, J., Clement, R., Finnigan, J., and Meyers, T.: Averaging, detrending, and filtering of eddy covariance time series, in: Handbook of Micrometeorology: A guide for Surface Flux Measurement and Analysis, edited by: Lee, X., Massman, W., Law, B., Lee, X., Massman, W., and Law, B., Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands, 7–31, 2004.
Munro, D.: Surface roughness and bulk heat transfer on a glacier: comparison with eddy correlation, J. Glaciol., 35, 343–348, 1989.
Munro, D.: A surface energy exchange model of glacier melt and net mass balance, Int. J. Climatol., 11, 689–700, 1991.
O'Brien, J. J.: A note on the vertical structure of the eddy exchange coeffcient in the planetary boundary layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 27, 1213–1215, 1970.
Oerlemans, J.: The atmospheric boundary layer over melting glaciers, in: Clear and Cloudy Boundary Layers, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 129–153, 1998.
Oerlemans, J.: Analysis of a 3 year meteorological record from the ablation zone of Morteratschgletscher, Switzerland: energy and mass balance, J. Glaciol., 46, 571–579, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756500781832657, 2000.
Oerlemans, J. and Grisogono, B.: Glacier winds and parameterisation of the related surface heat fluxes, Tellus A, 54, 440–452, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0870.2002.201398.x, 2002.
Oerlemans, J., Bjornsson, H., Kuhn, M., Obleitner, F., Palsson, F., Smeets, C., Vugts, H., and De Wolde, J.: Glacio-meteorological investigations on Vatnajokull, Iceland, Summer 1996: An overview, Bound.-Lay.Meteorol., 92, 3–26, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1001856114941, 1999.
Parmhed, O., Oerlemans, J., and Grisogono, B.: Describing surface fluxes in katabatic flow on Breidamerkurjokull, Iceland, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 130, 1137–1151, https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.03.52, 2004.
Prandtl, L.: The mechanics of viscous fluids (Aerodynamic theory), edited by: Durand, W. F., vol. III, Springer, Berlin, 1934.
Prandtl, L.: Führer durch die Strömungslehre, Vieweg und Sohn, 648 pp., 1942.
Prinz, R., Nicholson, L. I., Mölg, T., Gurgiser, W., and Kaser, G.: Climatic controls and climate proxy potential of Lewis Glacier, Mt. Kenya, The Cryosphere, 10, 133–148, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-133-2016, 2016.
Radić, V. and Hock, R.: Glaciers in the Earth's Hydrological Cycle: Assessments of Glacier Mass and Runoff Changes on Global and Regional Scales, Surv. Geophys., 35, 813–837, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-013-9262-y, 2014.
Radić, V., Bliss, A., Beedlow, A. C., Hock, R., Miles, E., and Cogley, J. G.: Regional and global projections of twenty-first century glacier mass changes in response to climate scenarios from global climate models, Clim. Dynam., 42, 37–58, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-1719-7, 2014.
Reijmer, C. H. and Hock, R.: Internal accumulation on Storglacidren, Sweden, in a multi-layer snow model coupled to a distributed energy- and mass-balance model, J. Glaciol., 54, 61–72, https://doi.org/10.3189/002214308784409161, 2008.
Scotanus, P., Nieuwstadt, F., and Debruin, H.: Temperature measurement with a sonic anemometer and its application to heat and moisture fluxes, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 26, 81–93, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00164332, 1983.
Sicart, J., Wagnon, P., and Ribstein, P.: Atmospheric controls of the heat balance of Zongo Glacier (16° S, Bolivia), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, D12106, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005732, 2005.
Sicart, J. E., Hock, R., Ribstein, P., Litt, M., and Ramirez, E.: Analysis of seasonal variations in mass balance and meltwater discharge of the tropical Zongo Glacier by application of a distributed energy balance model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D13105, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015105, 2011.
Smeets, C. J. P. P. and van den Broeke, M. R.: The parameterisation of scalar transfer over rough ice, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 128, 339–355, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-008-9292-z, 2008.
Smeets, C., Duynkerke, P., and Vugts, H.: Turbulence characteristics of the stable boundary layer over a mid-latitude glacier, Part I: A combination of katabatic and large-scale forcing, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 87, 117–145, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1000860406093, 1998.
Stull, R.: An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Kluwer Acad. Publ., Dordrecht, Boston, London, 666 pp., 1988.
Tanner, B. D., Swiatek, E., and Greene, J. P.: Density fluctuations and use of the krypton hygrometer in surface flux measurements, in: Management of irrigation and drainage systems: integrated perspectives, edited by: Allen, R. G., American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY, 1993.
van den Broeke, M.: Characteristics of the lower ablation zone of the west Greenland ice sheet for energy-balance modelling, Ann. Glaciol., 23, 160–166, 1996.
van den Broeke, M., Van As, D., Reijmer, C., and Van De Wal, R.: Sensible heat exchange at the antarctic snow surface: A study with automatic weather stations, Int. J. Climatol., 25, 1081–1101, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1152, 2005.
van der Avoird, E. and Duynkerke, P.: Turbulence in a katabatic flow – Does it resemble turbulence in stable boundary layers over flat surfaces?, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 92, 39–66, 1999.
Wagnon, P., Sicart, J., Berthier, E., and Chazarin, J.: Wintertime high-altitude surface energy balance of a Bolivian glacier, Illimani, 6340 m above sea level, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4177, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002088, 2003.
Webb, E., Pearman, G., and Leuning, R.: Correction of the flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 106, 85–100, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710644707, 1980.
Webb, E. K.: Profile relationships: the log-linear range, and extension to strong stability, Quartely Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 96, 67–&, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709640708, 1970.
Wilczak, J., Oncley, S., and Stage, S.: Sonic anemometer tilt correction algorithms, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 99, 127–150, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018966204465, 2001.
Short summary
Our overall goal is to improve the numerical modeling of glacier melt in order to better predict the future of glaciers in Western Canada and worldwide.
Most commonly used models rely on simplifications of processes that dictate melting at a glacier surface, in particular turbulent processes of heat exchange. We compared modeled against directly measured turbulent heat fluxes at a valley glacier in British Columbia, Canada, and found that more improvements are needed in all the tested models.
Our overall goal is to improve the numerical modeling of glacier melt in order to better predict...
