Articles | Volume 19, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
16 Jan 2025
Research article |
| 16 Jan 2025
| 16 Jan 2025
Spectral induced polarization survey for the estimation of hydrogeological parameters in an active rock glacier
Clemens Moser
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Research Unit of Geophysics, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
Umberto Morra di Cella
Climate Change Unit, ARPA VdA (Environmental Protection Agency of Valle d'Aosta), Saint-Christophe (AO), Italy
Christian Hauck
Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
Adrián Flores Orozco
Research Unit of Geophysics, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
Related authors
Theresa Maierhofer, Adrian Flores Orozco, Nathalie Roser, Jonas K. Limbrock, Christin Hilbich, Clemens Moser, Andreas Kemna, Elisabetta Drigo, Umberto Morra di Cella, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 18, 3383–3414, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we apply an electrical method in a high-mountain permafrost terrain in the Italian Alps, where long-term borehole temperature data are available for validation. In particular, we investigate the frequency dependence of the electrical properties for seasonal and annual variations along a 3-year monitoring period. We demonstrate that our method is capable of resolving temporal changes in the thermal state and the ice / water ratio associated with seasonal freeze–thaw processes.
Adrian Flores Orozco, Jakob Gallistl, Benjamin Gilfedder, Timea Katona, Sven Frei, Peter Strauss, and Gunter Blöschl
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4015, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4015, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Biogeosciences (BG).
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the role of soil in the storage of organic carbon is critical for a large number of environmental processes. Current practices rely on the drilling and analysis of samples, which is expensive, time consuming and destructive. Here we present a technique able to map soil organic carbon measuring the electrical properties of the subsurface without the necessity of drilling. Our results could permit to advance soil management strategies to enhance carbon sequestration and storage.
Cassandra E. M. Koenig, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, Lukas U. Arenson, and Pablo Wainstein
The Cryosphere, 19, 2653–2676, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2653-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2653-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents the first regional compilation of borehole temperature data from high-altitude permafrost sites in the Andes, providing a baseline of ground thermal conditions. Data from 53 boreholes show thermal characteristics similar to other mountain permafrost areas, but uniquely shaped by Andean topo-climatic conditions. The study emphasizes the need for ongoing monitoring and is a notable collaboration between industry, academia, and regulators in advancing climate change research.
Julie Wee, Sebastián Vivero, Tamara Mathys, Coline Mollaret, Christian Hauck, Christophe Lambiel, Jan Beutel, and Wilfried Haeberli
The Cryosphere, 18, 5939–5963, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study highlights the importance of a multi-method and multi-disciplinary approach to better understand the influence of the internal structure of the Gruben glacier-forefield-connected rock glacier and adjacent debris-covered glacier on their driving thermo-mechanical processes and associated surface dynamics. We were able to discriminate glacial from periglacial processes as their spatio-temporal patterns of surface dynamics and geophysical signatures are (mostly) different.
Tamara Mathys, Muslim Azimshoev, Zhoodarbeshim Bektursunov, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Murataly Duishonakunov, Abdulhamid Kayumov, Nikolay Kassatkin, Vassily Kapitsa, Leo C. P. Martin, Coline Mollaret, Hofiz Navruzshoev, Eric Pohl, Tomas Saks, Intizor Silmonov, Timur Musaev, Ryskul Usubaliev, and Martin Hoelzle
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2795, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2795, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides a comprehensive geophysical dataset on permafrost in the data-scarce Tien Shan and Pamir mountain regions of Central Asia. It also introduces a novel modeling method to quantify ground ice content across different landforms. The findings indicate that this approach is well-suited for characterizing ice-rich permafrost, which is crucial for evaluating future water availability and assessing risks associated with thawing permafrost.
Mohammad Farzamian, Teddi Herring, Gonçalo Vieira, Miguel Angel de Pablo, Borhan Yaghoobi Tabar, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 18, 4197–4213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4197-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4197-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
An automated electrical resistivity tomography (A-ERT) system was developed and deployed in Antarctica to monitor permafrost and active-layer dynamics. The A-ERT, coupled with an efficient processing workflow, demonstrated its capability to monitor real-time thaw depth progression, detect seasonal and surficial freezing–thawing events, and assess permafrost stability. Our study showcased the potential of A-ERT to contribute to global permafrost monitoring networks.
Theresa Maierhofer, Adrian Flores Orozco, Nathalie Roser, Jonas K. Limbrock, Christin Hilbich, Clemens Moser, Andreas Kemna, Elisabetta Drigo, Umberto Morra di Cella, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 18, 3383–3414, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we apply an electrical method in a high-mountain permafrost terrain in the Italian Alps, where long-term borehole temperature data are available for validation. In particular, we investigate the frequency dependence of the electrical properties for seasonal and annual variations along a 3-year monitoring period. We demonstrate that our method is capable of resolving temporal changes in the thermal state and the ice / water ratio associated with seasonal freeze–thaw processes.
Wilfried Haeberli, Lukas U. Arenson, Julie Wee, Christian Hauck, and Nico Mölg
The Cryosphere, 18, 1669–1683, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1669-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1669-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers in ice-rich permafrost can be discriminated from debris-covered glaciers. The key physical phenomenon relates to the tight mechanical coupling between the moving frozen body at depth and the surface layer of debris in the case of rock glaciers, as opposed to the virtually inexistent coupling in the case of surface ice with a debris cover. Contact zones of surface ice with subsurface ice in permafrost constitute diffuse landforms beyond either–or-type landform classification.
Bernd Etzelmüller, Ketil Isaksen, Justyna Czekirda, Sebastian Westermann, Christin Hilbich, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 17, 5477–5497, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is widespread in the mountains of Norway and Iceland. Several boreholes were drilled after 1999 for long-term permafrost monitoring. We document a strong warming of permafrost, including the development of unfrozen bodies in the permafrost. Warming and degradation of mountain permafrost may lead to more natural hazards.
Johannes Buckel, Jan Mudler, Rainer Gardeweg, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Regula Frauenfelder, Christof Kneisel, Sebastian Buchelt, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Andreas Hördt, and Matthias Bücker
The Cryosphere, 17, 2919–2940, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study reveals permafrost degradation by repeating old geophysical measurements at three Alpine sites. The compared data indicate that ice-poor permafrost is highly affected by temperature warming. The melting of ice-rich permafrost could not be identified. However, complex geomorphic processes are responsible for this rather than external temperature change. We suspect permafrost degradation here as well. In addition, we introduce a new current injection method for data acquisition.
M. M. Macelloni, A. Cina, N. Grasso, and U. Morra di Cella
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLVIII-2-W3-2023, 165–171, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-2-W3-2023-165-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-2-W3-2023-165-2023, 2023
Adrian Wicki, Peter Lehmann, Christian Hauck, and Manfred Stähli
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1059–1077, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1059-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1059-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Soil wetness measurements are used for shallow landslide prediction; however, existing sites are often located in flat terrain. Here, we assessed the ability of monitoring sites at flat locations to detect critically saturated conditions compared to if they were situated at a landslide-prone location. We found that differences exist but that both sites could equally well distinguish critical from non-critical conditions for shallow landslide triggering if relative changes are considered.
Tamara Mathys, Christin Hilbich, Lukas U. Arenson, Pablo A. Wainstein, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 16, 2595–2615, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
With ongoing climate change, there is a pressing need to understand how much water is stored as ground ice in permafrost. Still, field-based data on permafrost in the Andes are scarce, resulting in large uncertainties regarding ground ice volumes and their hydrological role. We introduce an upscaling methodology of geophysical-based ground ice quantifications at the catchment scale. Our results indicate that substantial ground ice volumes may also be present in areas without rock glaciers.
Theresa Maierhofer, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Andreas Kemna, and Adrián Flores-Orozco
The Cryosphere, 16, 1903–1925, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1903-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1903-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We extend the application of electrical methods to characterize alpine permafrost using the so-called induced polarization (IP) effect associated with the storage of charges at the interface between liquid and solid phases. We investigate different field protocols to enhance data quality and conclude that with appropriate measurement and processing procedures, the characteristic dependence of the IP response of frozen rocks improves the assessment of thermal state and ice content in permafrost.
Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, Coline Mollaret, Pablo Wainstein, and Lukas U. Arenson
The Cryosphere, 16, 1845–1872, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1845-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1845-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In view of water scarcity in the Andes, the significance of permafrost as a future water resource is often debated focusing on satellite-detected features such as rock glaciers. We present data from > 50 geophysical surveys in Chile and Argentina to quantify the ground ice volume stored in various permafrost landforms, showing that not only rock glacier but also non-rock-glacier permafrost contains significant ground ice volumes and is relevant when assessing the hydrological role of permafrost.
Martin Hoelzle, Christian Hauck, Tamara Mathys, Jeannette Noetzli, Cécile Pellet, and Martin Scherler
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1531–1547, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1531-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1531-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
With ongoing climate change, it is crucial to understand the interactions of the individual heat fluxes at the surface and within the subsurface layers, as well as their impacts on the permafrost thermal regime. A unique set of high-altitude meteorological measurements has been analysed to determine the energy balance at three mountain permafrost sites in the Swiss Alps, where data have been collected since the late 1990s in collaboration with the Swiss Permafrost Monitoring Network (PERMOS).
Bernd Etzelmüller, Justyna Czekirda, Florence Magnin, Pierre-Allain Duvillard, Ludovic Ravanel, Emanuelle Malet, Andreas Aspaas, Lene Kristensen, Ingrid Skrede, Gudrun D. Majala, Benjamin Jacobs, Johannes Leinauer, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Martina Böhme, Reginald Hermanns, Harald Ø. Eriksen, Tom Rune Lauknes, Michael Krautblatter, and Sebastian Westermann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 97–129, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-97-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-97-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This paper is a multi-authored study documenting the possible existence of permafrost in permanently monitored rockslides in Norway for the first time by combining a multitude of field data, including geophysical surveys in rock walls. The paper discusses the possible role of thermal regime and rockslide movement, and it evaluates the possible impact of atmospheric warming on rockslide dynamics in Norwegian mountains.
Adrian Wicki, Per-Erik Jansson, Peter Lehmann, Christian Hauck, and Manfred Stähli
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4585–4610, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4585-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4585-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Soil moisture information was shown to be valuable for landslide prediction. Soil moisture was simulated at 133 sites in Switzerland, and the temporal variability was compared to the regional occurrence of landslides. We found that simulated soil moisture is a good predictor for landslides, and that the forecast goodness is similar to using in situ measurements. This encourages the use of models for complementing existing soil moisture monitoring networks for regional landslide early warning.
Timea Katona, Benjamin Silas Gilfedder, Sven Frei, Matthias Bücker, and Adrian Flores-Orozco
Biogeosciences, 18, 4039–4058, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4039-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4039-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We used electrical geophysical methods to map variations in the rates of microbial activity within a wetland. Our results show that the highest electrical conductive and capacitive properties relate to the highest concentrations of phosphates, carbon, and iron; thus, we can use them to characterize the geometry of the biogeochemically active areas or hotspots.
Christian Halla, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Carla Tapia Baldis, Dario Trombotto Liaudat, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, and Lothar Schrott
The Cryosphere, 15, 1187–1213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In the semi-arid to arid Andes of Argentina, rock glaciers contain invisible and unknown amounts of ground ice that could become more important in future for the water availability during the dry season. The study shows that the investigated rock glacier represents an important long-term ice reservoir in the dry mountain catchment and that interannual changes of ground ice can store and release significant amounts of annual precipitation.
Matthias Bücker, Adrián Flores Orozco, Jakob Gallistl, Matthias Steiner, Lukas Aigner, Johannes Hoppenbrock, Ruth Glebe, Wendy Morales Barrera, Carlos Pita de la Paz, César Emilio García García, José Alberto Razo Pérez, Johannes Buckel, Andreas Hördt, Antje Schwalb, and Liseth Pérez
Solid Earth, 12, 439–461, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-439-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-439-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We use seismic, electromagnetic, and geoelectrical methods to assess sediment thickness and lake-bottom geology of two karst lakes. An unexpected drainage event provided us with the unusual opportunity to compare water-borne measurements with measurements carried out on the dry lake floor. The resulting data set does not only provide insight into the specific lake-bottom geology of the studied lakes but also evidences the potential and limitations of the employed field methods.
Cited articles
Amschwand, D., Scherler, M., Hoelzle, M., Krummenacher, B., Haberkorn, A., Kienholz, C., and Gubler, H.: Surface heat fluxes at coarse blocky Murtèl rock glacier (Engadine, eastern Swiss Alps), The Cryosphere, 18, 2103–2139, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2103-2024, 2024.
Archie, G. E.: The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir Characteristics, Petroleum Transactions of American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers (AIME), 146, 54–62, https://doi.org/10.2118/942054-G, 1942.
Arenson, L., Hoelzle, M., and Springman, S.: Borehole deformation measurements and internal structure of some rock glaciers in Switzerland, Permafrost Periglac., 13, 117–135, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.414, 2002.
Barsch, D.: Rockglaciers: indicators for the present and former geoecology in high mountain environments, Springer, Berlin, 331 pp., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-80093-1, ISBN 978-3-642-80095-5, 1996.
Bast, A., Kenner, R., and Phillips, M.: Short-term cooling, drying, and deceleration of an ice-rich rock glacier, The Cryosphere, 18, 3141–3158, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3141-2024, 2024.
Bearzot, F., Garzonio, R., Di Mauro, B., Colombo, R., Cremonese, E., Crosta, G. B., Delaloye, R., Hauck, C., Morra Di Cella, U., Pogliotti, P., Frattini, P., and Rossini, M.: Kinematics of an Alpine rock glacier from multi-temporal UAV surveys and GNSS data, Geomorphology, 402, 108116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108116, 2022.
Bearzot, F., Colombo, N., Cremonese, E., Morra di Cella, U., Drigo, E., Caschetto, M., Basiricò, S., Crosta, G. B., Frattini, P., Freppaz, M., Pogliotti, P., Salerno, F., Brunier, A., and Rossini, M.: Hydrological, thermal and chemical influence of an intact rock glacier discharge on mountain stream water, Sci. Total Environ., 876, 162777, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162777, 2023.
Beniston, M., Farinotti, D., Stoffel, M., Andreassen, L. M., Coppola, E., Eckert, N., Fantini, A., Giacona, F., Hauck, C., Huss, M., Huwald, H., Lehning, M., López-Moreno, J.-I., Magnusson, J., Marty, C., Morán-Tejéda, E., Morin, S., Naaim, M., Provenzale, A., Rabatel, A., Six, D., Stötter, J., Strasser, U., Terzago, S., and Vincent, C.: The European mountain cryosphere: a review of its current state, trends, and future challenges, The Cryosphere, 12, 759–794, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-759-2018, 2018.
Benoit, S., Ghysels, G., Gommers, K., Hermans, T., Nguyen, F., and Huysmans, M.: Characterization of Spatially Variable Riverbed Hydraulic Conductivity Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography and Induced Polarization, Hydrogeol. J., 27, 395–407, 2019.
Binley, A. and Kemna, A.: DC resistivity and induced polarization methods, in: Hydrogeophysics, edited by: Rubin, Y., and Hubbard, S. S., Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 129–156, https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3102-5_5, 2005.
Binley, A. and Slater, L.: Resistivity and Induced Polarization: Theory and Applications to the Near-surface Earth, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108685955.003, 2020.
Binley, A., Slater, L. D., Fukes, M., and Cassiani, G.: Relationship between spectral induced polarization and hydraulic properties of saturated and unsaturated sandstone, Water Resour. Res., 41, W12417, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004202, 2005.
Biskaborn, B. K., Smith, S. L., Noetzli, J., Matthes, H., Vieira, G., Streletskiy, D. A., Schoeneich, P., Romanovsky, V. E., Lewkowicz, A. G., Abramov, A., Allard, M., Boike, J., Cable, W. L., Christiansen, H. H., Delaloye, R., Diekmann, B., Drozdov, D., Etzelmüller, B., Grosse, G., Guglielmin, M., Ingeman-Nielsen, T., Isaksen, K., Ishikawa, M., Johansson, M., Johannsson, H., Joo, A., Kaverin, D., Kholodov, A., Konstantinov, P., Kröger, T., Lambiel, C., Lanckman, J.-P., Luo, D., Malkova, G., Meiklejohn, I., Moskalenko, N., Oliva, M., Phillips, M., Ramos, M., Sannel, A. B. K., Sergeev, D., Seybold, C., Skryabin, P., Vasiliev, A., Wu, Q., Yoshikawa, K., Zheleznyak, M., and Lantuit, H.: Permafrost is warming at a global scale, Nat. Commun., 10, 264, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-08240-4, 2019.
Blanchy, G., Saneiyan, S., Boyd, J., McLachlan, P., and Binley, A.: ResIPy, an intuitive open source software for complex geoelectrical inversion/modeling, Comput. Geosci., 137, 104423, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2020.104423, 2020.
Bodin, X., Thibert, E., Sanchez, O., Rabatel, A., and Jaillet, S.: Multi-Annual Kinematics of an Active Rock Glacier Quantified from Very High-Resolution DEMs: An Application-Case in the French Alps, Remote Sens., 10, 547, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10040547, 2018.
Brighenti, S., Tolotti, M., Bruno, M. C., Wharton, G., Pusch, M. T., and Bertoldi, W.: Ecosystem shifts in Alpine streams under glacier retreat and rock glacier thaw: A review, Sci. Total Environ., 675, 542–559, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.221, 2019.
Buchli, T., Merz, K., Zhou, X., Kinzelbach, W., and Springman, S. M.: Characterization and Monitoring of the Furggwanghorn Rock Glacier, Turtmann Valley, Switzerland: Results from 2010 to 2012, Vadose Zone J., 12, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2012.0067, 2013.
Buchli, T., Kos, A., Limpach, P., Merz, K., Zhou, X., and Springman, S. M.: Kinematic investigations on the Furggwanghorn Rock Glacier, Switzerland, Permafrost Periglac., 29, 3–20, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1968, 2018.
Burt, T. P. and Williams, P. J.: Hydraulic conductivity in frozen soils, Earth Surf. Process., 1, 349–360, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290010404, 1976.
Camporese, M., Cassiani, G., Deiana, R., and Salandin, P.: Assessment of local hydraulic properties from electrical resistivity tomography monitoring of a three-dimensional synthetic tracer test experiment, Water Resour. Res.,47, W12508, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010528, 2011.
Carman, P. C.: Permeability of saturated sands, soils and clays, J. Agric. Sci., 29, 263–273, 1939.
Cassiani, G., Bruno, V., Villa, A., Fusi, N., and Binley, A. M.: A saline trace test monitored via time-lapse surface electrical resistivity tomography, J. Appl. Geophys., 59, 244–259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2005.10.007, 2006.
Chambers, J. E., Ogilvy, R. D., Kuras, O., Cripps, J. C., and Meldrum, P. I.: 3D electrical imaging of known targets at a controlled environmental test site, Environ. Geology, 41, 690–704, 2002.
Cicoira, A., Beutel, J., Faillettaz, J., and Vieli, A.: Water controls the seasonal rhythm of rock glacier flow, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 528, 115844, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115844, 2019.
Cicoira, A., Marcer, M., Gärtner-Roer, I., Bodin, X., Arenson, L. U., and Vieli, A.: A general theory of rock glacier creep based on in-situ and remote sensing observations, Permafrost Periglac. Process., 32, 139–153, 2021.
Coperey, A., Revil, A., Abdulsamad, F., Stutz, B., Duvillard, P. A., and Ravanel, L.: Low-Frequency Induced Polarization of Porous Media Undergoing Freezing: Preliminary Observations and Modeling, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 124, 4523–4544, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JB017015, 2019.
Delaloye, R., Lambiel, C., and Gärtner-Roer, I.: Overview of rock glacier kinematics research in the Swiss Alps, Geogr. Helv., 65, 135–145, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-65-135-2010, 2010.
Del Siro, C., Scapozza, C., Perga, M.-E., and Lambiel, C.: Investigating the origin of solutes in rock glacier springs in the Swiss Alps: A conceptual model, Front. Earth Sci., 11, 1056305, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2023.1056305, 2023.
Flores Orozco, A., Williams, K. H., and Kemna, A.: Time-lapse spectral induced polarization imaging of stimulated uranium bioremediation, Near Surf. Geophys., 11, 531–544, https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2013020, 2013.
Flores Orozco, A., Kemna, A., Binley, A., and Cassiani, G.: Analysis of time-lapse data error in complex conductivity imaging to alleviate anthropogenic noise for site characterization, Geophysics, 84, B181–B193, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2017-0755.1, 2019.
Flores Orozco, A., Aigner, L., and Gallistl, J.: Investigation of cable effects in spectral induced polarization imaging at the field scale using multicore and coaxial cables, Geophysics, 86, E59–E75, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2019-0552.1, 2021.
Flores Orozco, A., Steiner, M., Katona, T., Roser, N., Moser, C., Stumvoll, M. J., and Glade, T.: Application of induced polarization imaging across different scales to understand surface and groundwater flow at the Hofermuehle landslide, Catena, 219, 106612, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106612, 2022.
Frohlich, R. K., Fisher, J. J., and Summerly, E.: Electric-hydraulic conductivity correlation in fractured crystalline bedrock: Central Landfill, Rhode Island, USA, J. Appl. Geophys., 35, 249–259, 1996.
Geiger, S. T., Daniels, J. M., Miller, S. N., and Nicholas, J. W.: Influence of rock glaciers on stream hydrology in the La Sal Mountains, Utah, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 46, 645–658, https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-46.3.645, 2014.
Geuzaine, C. and Remacle, J.-F.: Gmsh: A 3-D finite element mesh generator with built-in pre- and post-processing facilities, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng., 79, 1309–1331, https://doi.org/10.1002/nme.2579, 2009.
Giardino, R., Regmi, N., and Vitek, J.: Rock glaciers, in: Encyclopedia of snow, ice and glaciers, edited by: Singh, V. P., Singh, P., and Haritashya U. K., Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 943–948, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_453, 2011.
Haeberli, W.: Creep of mountain permafrost: internal structure and flow of alpine rock glaciers, Mitteilungen der Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau, Hydrol. Und Gaziologie an der ETH Zurich, Zurich, 5–142, 1985.
Haeberli, W., Hallet, B., Arenson, L., Elconin, R., Humlum, O., Kääb, A., Kaufmann, V., Ladanyi, B., Matsuoka, N., Springman, S., and Mühll, D. V.: Permafrost creep and rock glacier dynamics, Permafrost Periglac., 17, 189–214, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.561, 2006.
Haeberli, W., Schaub, Y., and Huggel, C.: Increasing risks related to landslides from degrading permafrost into new lakes in de-glaciating mountain ranges, Geomorphology, 293, 405–417, 2017.
Halla, C., Blöthe, J. H., Tapia Baldis, C., Trombotto Liaudat, D., Hilbich, C., Hauck, C., and Schrott, L.: Ice content and interannual water storage changes of an active rock glacier in the dry Andes of Argentina, The Cryosphere, 15, 1187–1213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, 2021.
Harrington, J. S., Mozil, A., Hayashi, M., and Bentley, L. R.: Groundwater flow and storage processes in an inactive rock glacier, Hydrol. Process., 32, 3070–3088, 2018.
Hauck, C., Böttcher, M., and Maurer, H.: A new model for estimating subsurface ice content based on combined electrical and seismic data sets, The Cryosphere, 5, 453–468, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-453-2011, 2011.
Hördt, A., Druiventak, A., Blaschek, R., Binot, F., Kemna, A., Kreye, P., and Zisser, N.: Case histories of hydraulic conductivity estimation with induced polarization at the field scale, Near Surf. Geophys., 7, 529–545, https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2009035, 2009.
Ikeda, A., Matsuoka, N., and Kääb, A.: Fast deformation of perennially frozen debris in a warm rock glacier in the Swiss Alps: An effect of liquid water, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 113, F01021, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007jf000859, 2008.
Jones, D. B., Harrison, S., Anderson, K., and Betts, R. A.: Mountain rock glaciers contain globally significant water stores, Sci. Rep.-UK, 8, 2834, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-21244-w, 2018.
Jones, D. B., Harrison, S., Anderson, K., and Whalley, W. B.: Rock glaciers and mountain hydrology: A review, Earth-Sci. Rev., 193, 66–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.04.001, 2019.
Kääb, A., Frauenfelder, R., and Roer, I.: On the response of rockglacier creep to surface temperature increase, Global Planet. Change, 56, 172–187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.07.005, 2007.
Kellerer-Pirklbauer, A., Bodin, X., Delaloye, R., Lambiel, C., Gärtner-Roer, I., Bonnefoy-Demongeot, M., Carturan, L., Damm, B., Eulenstein, J., Fischer, A., Hartl, L., Ikeda, A., Kaufmann, V., Krainer, K., Matsuoka, N., Morra Di Cella, U., Noetzli, J., Seppi, R., Scapozza, C., Schoeneich, P., Stocker-Waldhuber, M., Thibert, E., and Zumiani, M.: Acceleration and interannual variability of creep rates in mountain permafrost landforms (rock glacier velocities) in the European Alps in 1995–2022, Environ. Res. Lett., 19, 034022, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad25a4, 2024.
Kemna, A., Vanderborght, J., Kulessa, B., and Vereecken, H.: Imaging and characterisation of subsurface solute transport using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and equivalent transport models, J. Hydrol., 267, 125–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1694(02)00145-2, 2002.
Kemna, A., Binley, A., and Slater, L.: Crosshole IP imaging for engineering and environmental applications, Geophysics, 69, 97–107, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1649379, 2004.
Kenner, R., Phillips, M., Beutel, J., Hiller, M., Limpach, P., Pointner, E., and Volken, M.: Factors Controlling Velocity Variations at Short-Term, Seasonal and Multiyear Time Scales, Ritigraben Rock Glacier, Western Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 28, 675–684, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1953, 2017.
Kenner, R., Pruessner, L., Beutel, J., Limpach, P., and Phillips, M.: How rock glacier hydrology, deformation velocities and ground temperatures interact: Examples from the Swiss Alps, Permafr. Periglac. Process., 31, 3–14, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2023, 2019.
Kneisel, C., Hauck, C., Fortier, R., and Moorman, B.: Advances in geophysical methods for permafrost investigations, Permafrost Periglac., 19, 157–178, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.616, 2008.
Kozeny, J.: Über kapillare Leitung des Wassers im Boden, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien Math. Naturwiss. Kl. Abt. 1, 136, 271–306, 1927.
Krainer, K., and Mostler, W.: Hydrology of active rock glaciers: Examples from the Austrian Alps, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 34, 142–149, https://doi.org/10.2307/1552465, 2002.
Krainer, K., Mostler, W., and Spötl, C.: Discharge from active rock glaciers, Austrian Alps: a stable isotope approach, Austrian J. Earth Sci., 100, 102–112, 2007.
Krainer, K., Bressan, D., Dietre, B., Haas, J. N., Hajdas, I., Lang, K., Mair, V., Nickus, U., Reidl, D., Thies, H., and Tonidandel, D.: A 10,300-year-old permafrost core from the active rock glacier Lazaun, southern Ötztal Alps (South Tyrol, northern Italy), Quaternary Res., 83, 324–335, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2014.12.005, 2015.
Krautblatter, M., Funk, D., and Günzel, F. K.: Why permafrost rocks become unstable: a rock–ice-mechanical model in time and space, Earth Surf. Process. Landf., 38, 876–887, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3374, 2013.
LaBrecque, D. J., Miletto, M., Daily, W., Ramirez, A., and Owen, E.: The effects of noise on Occam's inversion of resistivity tomography data, Geophysics, 61, 2, 538–548, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1443980, 1996.
Leroy, P., Revil, A., Kemna, A., Cosenza, P., and Ghorbani, A.: Complex conductivity of water-saturated packs of glass beads, J. Colloid Interfac., 321, 103–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2007.12.031, 2008.
Luethi, R., Phillips, M., and Lehning, M.: Estimating Non-Conductive Heat Flow Leading to Intra-Permafrost Talik Formation at the Ritigraben Rock Glacier (Western Swiss Alps), Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 28, 183–194, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1911, 2017.
Maierhofer, T., Hauck, C., Hilbich, C., Kemna, A., and Flores-Orozco, A.: Spectral induced polarization imaging to investigate an ice-rich mountain permafrost site in Switzerland, The Cryosphere, 16, 1903–1925, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1903-2022, 2022.
Maierhofer, T., Flores Orozco, A., Roser, N., Limbrock, J. K., Hilbich, C., Moser, C., Kemna, A., Drigo, E., Morra di Cella, U., and Hauck, C.: Spectral induced polarization imaging to monitor seasonal and annual dynamics of frozen ground at a mountain permafrost site in the Italian Alps, The Cryosphere, 18, 3383–3414, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, 2024.
Mao, D., Revil, A., and Hinton, J.: Induced polarization response of porous media with metallic particles – Part 4: Detection of metallic and nonmetallic targets in time-domain induced polarization tomography, Geophysics, 81, 4, D359–D375, https://doi.org/10.1190/GEO2015-0480.1, 2016.
Marcer, M., Cicoira, A., Cusicanqui, D., Bodin, X., Echelard, T., Obregon, R., and Schoeneich, P.: Rock glaciers throughout the French Alps accelerated and destabilised since 1990 as air temperatures increased, Commun. Earth Environ., 2, 81, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00150-6, 2021.
Mollaret, C., Hilbich, C., Pellet, C., Flores-Orozco, A., Delaloye, R., and Hauck, C.: Mountain permafrost degradation documented through a network of permanent electrical resistivity tomography sites, The Cryosphere, 13, 2557–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, 2019.
Moser, C., Binley, A., and Flores Orozco, A.: 3D electrode configurations for spectral induced polarization surveys of landfills, Waste Manage., 169, 208–222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.07.006, 2023.
Müller, J., Vieli, A., and Gärtner-Roer, I.: Rock glaciers on the run – understanding rock glacier landform evolution and recent changes from numerical flow modeling, The Cryosphere, 10, 2865–2886, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2865-2016, 2016.
Noetzli, J., Arenson, L. U., Bast, A., Beutel, J., Delaloye, R., Farinotti, D., Gruber, S., Gubler, H., Haeberli, W., Hasler, A., Hauck, C., Hiller, M., Hoelzle, M., Lambiel, C., Pellet, C., Springman, S. M., Vonder Muehll, D., and Phillips, M.: Best Practice for Measuring Permafrost Temperature in Boreholes Based on the Experience in the Swiss Alps, Front. Earth Sci., 9, 607875, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.607875, 2021.
Pavoni, M., Boaga, J., Carrera, A., Zuecco, G., Carturan, L., and Zumiani, M.: Brief communication: Mountain permafrost acts as an aquitard during an infiltration experiment monitored with electrical resistivity tomography time-lapse measurements, The Cryosphere, 17, 1601–1607, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1601-2023, 2023.
Perri, M. T., Cassiani, G., Gervasio, I., Deiana, R., and Binley, A.: A saline tracer test monitored via both surface and cross-borehole electrical resistivity tomography: Comparison of time-lapse results, J. Appl. Geophys., 79, 6–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2011.12.011, 2012.
Phillips, M., Buchli, C., Weber, S., Boaga, J., Pavoni, M., and Bast, A.: Brief communication: Combining borehole temperature, borehole piezometer and cross-borehole electrical resistivity tomography measurements to investigate seasonal changes in ice-rich mountain permafrost, The Cryosphere, 17, 753–760, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-753-2023, 2023.
Pourrier, J., Jourde, H., Kinnard, C., Gascoin, S., and Monnier, S.: Glacier meltwater flow paths and storage in a geomorphologically complex glacial foreland: The case of the Tapado glacier, dry Andes of Chile (30° S), J. Hydrol., 519, 1068–1083, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.08.023, 2014.
Pruessner, L., Huss, M., Phillips, M., and Farinotti, D.: A Framework for Modeling Rock Glaciers and Permafrost at the Basin-Scale in High Alpine Catchments, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 13, e2020MS002361, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020MS002361, 2021.
Revil, A.: Effective conductivity and permittivity of unsaturated porous materials in the frequency range 1 mHz–1 GHz, Water Resour. Res., 49, 306–307, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012WR012700, 2013a.
Revil, A.: On charge accumulation in heterogeneous porous rocks under the influence of an external electric field, Geophysics, 78, D271–D291, https://doi.org/10.1190/GEO2012-0503.1, 2013b.
Revil, A. and Florsch, N.: Determination of permeability from spectral induced polarization in granular media, Geophys. J. Int., 181, 1480–1498, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2010.04573.x, 2010.
Revil, A., Binley, A., Mejus, L., and Kessouri, P.: Predicting permeability from the characteristic relaxation time and intrinsic formation factor of complex conductivity spectra, Water Resour. Res., 51, 6672–6700, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017074, 2015.
Revil, A., Breton, M. L., Niu, Q., Wallin, E., Haskins, E., and Thomas, D. M.: Induced polarization of volcanic rocks – 1. Surface versus quadrature conductivity, Geophys. J. Int., 208, 826–844, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggw444, 2017a.
Revil, A., Breton, M. L., Niu, Q., Wallin, E., Haskins, E., and Thomas, D. M.: Induced polarization of volcanic rocks. 2. Influence of pore size and permeability, Geophys. J. Int., 208, 814–825, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggw382, 2017b.
Revil, A., Coperey, A., Shao, Z., Florsch, N., Fabricius, I. L., Deng, Y., Delsman, J. R., Pauw, P. S., Karaoulis, M., de Louw, P. G. B., van Baaren, E. S., Dabekaussen, W., Menkovic, A., and Gunnink, J. L.: Complex conductivity of soils, Water Resour. Res., 53, 8, 7121–7147, 2017c.
Revil, A., Soueid, A., Coperey, A., Ravanel, L., Sharma, R., and Panwar, N.: Induced polarization as a tool to characterize shallow landslides, J. Hydrol., 589, 125369, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125369, 2020.
Revil, A., Schmutz, M., Abdulsamad, F., Balde, A., Beck, C., Ghorbani, A., and Hubbard, S.: Field-scale estimation of soil properties from spectral induced polarization tomography, Geoderma, 403, 115380, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115380, 2021.
Roer, I., Haeberli, W., Avian, M., Kaufmann, V., Delaloye, R., Lambiel, C., and Kääb, A.: Observations and considerations on destabilizing active rock glaciers in the European Alps, in: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Permafrost, 29 June 2008–3 July 2008, Fairbanks, Alaska, 1505–1510, https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-6082, 2008.
Rogger, M., Chirico, G. B., Hausmann, H., Krainer, K., Brückl, E., Stadler, P., and Blöschl, G.: Impact of mountain permafrost on flow path and runoff response in a high alpine catchment, Water Resour. Res., 53, 1288–1308, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019341, 2017.
Singha, K. and Gorelick, S. M.: Saline tracer visualized with three-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography: Field-scale spatial moment analysis, Water Resour. Res., 41, W05023, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003460, 2005.
Slater, L.: Near surface electrical characterization of hydraulic conductivity: From petrophysical properties to aquifer geometries – A review, Surv. Geophys., 28, 169–197, 2007.
Slater, L., Barrash, W., Montrey, J., and Binley, A.: Electrical-hydraulic relationships observed for unconsolidated sediments in the presence of a cobble framework, Water Resour. Res., 50, 5721–5742, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013WR014631, 2014.
Soueid Ahmed, A., Revil, A., Abdulsamad, F., Steck, B., Vergniault, C., and Guihard, V.: Induced polarization as a tool to non-intrusively characterize embankment hydraulic properties, Eng. Geol., 271, 10560, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105604, 2020.
Stillman, D. E., Grimm, R. E., and Dec, S. F.: Low-Frequency Electrical Properties of Ice – Silicate Mixtures, J. Phys. Chem., 114, 6065–6073, https://doi.org/10.1021/jp9070778, 2010.
Urish, D.: Electrical resistivity-hydraulic conductivity relationships in glacial outwash aquifers, Water Resour. Res., 17, 1401–1408, 1981.
Van Genuchten, M. T.: A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44, 892–898, https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x, 1980.
Van Voorhis, G. D., Nelson, P. H., and Drake, T. L.: Complex resistivity spectra of porphyry copper mineralization, Geophysics, 38, 49–60, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1440333, 1973.
Vinegar, H. J. and Waxman, M. H.: Induced polarization of shaly sands, Geophysics, 49, 8, 1267–1287, 1984.
Wagner, T., Kainz, S., Helfricht, K., Fischer, A., Avian, M., Krainer, K., and Winkler, G.: Assessment of liquid and solid water storage in rock glaciers versus glacier ice in the Austrian Alps, Sci. Total Environ., 800, 149593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149593, 2021.
Waxman, M. H. and Smits, L. J. M.: Electrical conductivities in oil-bearing shaly sands, Soc. Petrol. Eng. J., 8, 107–122, 1968.
Weller, A., Slater, L., and Nordsiek, S.: On the relationship between induced polarization and surface conductivity: Implications for petrophysical interpretation of electrical measurements, Geophysics, 78, D315–D325, https://doi.org/10.1190/GEO2013-0076.1, 2013.
Weller, A., Slater, L., Binley, A., Nordsiek, S., and Xu, S.: Permeability prediction based on induced polarization: Insights from measurements on sandstone and unconsolidated samples spanning a wide permeability range, Geophysics, 80, D161–D173, 2015.
Winkler, G., Wagner, T., Pauritsch, M., Birk, S., Kellerer-Pirklbauer, A., Benischke, R., Leis, A., Morawetz, R., Schreilechner, M. G., and Hergarten, S.: Identification and assessment of groundwater flow and storage components of the relict Schöneben Rock Glacier, Niedere Tauern Range, Eastern Alps (Austria), Hydrogeol. J., 24, 937–953, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-015-1348-9, 2016.
Wilkinson, P. B., Chambers, J. E., Meldrum, P. I., Kuras, O., Inauen, C. M., Swift, R. T., Curioni, G., Uhlemann, S., Graham, J., Atherton, N.: Windowed 4D inversion for near real-time geoelectrical monitoring applications, Front. Earth Sci., 10, 983603, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.983603, 2022.
Wirz, V., Beutel, J., Gruber, S., Gubler, S., and Purves, R. S.: Estimating velocity from noisy GPS data for investigating the temporal variability of slope movements, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 2503–2520, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-2503-2014, 2014.
Wirz, V., Gruber, S., Purves, R. S., Beutel, J., Gärtner-Roer, I., Gubler, S., and Vieli, A.: Short-term velocity variations at three rock glaciers and their relationship with meteorological conditions, Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 103–123, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-103-2016, 2016.
Zenklusen Mutter, E. and Phillips, M.: Active Layer Characteristics At Ten Borehole Sites In Alpine Permafrost Terrain, Switzerland, Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 23, 138–151, 2012.
Short summary
We use electrical conductivity and induced polarization in an imaging framework to quantify hydrogeological parameters in the active Gran Sometta rock glacier. The results show high spatial variability in the hydrogeological parameters across the rock glacier and are validated by saltwater tracer tests coupled with 3D electrical conductivity imaging. Hydrogeological information was linked to kinematic data to further investigate its role in rock glacier movement.
We use electrical conductivity and induced polarization in an imaging framework to quantify...
