Articles | Volume 18, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1579-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1579-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
05 Apr 2024
Research article |
| 05 Apr 2024
| 05 Apr 2024
A microstructure-based parameterization of the effective anisotropic elasticity tensor of snow, firn, and bubbly ice
Kavitha Sundu
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
Johannes Freitag
Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
Kévin Fourteau
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IRD, Grenoble INP, IGE, 38000 Grenoble, France
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
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Neige Calonne, Pascal Hagenmuller, Rémi Granger, Lisa Bouvet, Kévin Fourteau, Julien Brondex, François Tuzet, Yves Lejeune, Anne Dufour, Mathieu Fructus, Teruo Aoki, and Marie Dumont
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2026-718, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2026-718, 2026
Preprint under review for ESSD
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We collected weekly measurements of snow microstructural properties over two winters at Col de Porte in the French Alps, a relatively warm alpine site, using complementary techniques including X-ray tomography, the SnowMicroPen, and optical instruments. The dataset captures snowpack evolution at fine vertical resolution and is a valuable resource for snow model evaluation and instrument comparisons. It also provides guidance for future snow monitoring campaigns in warm mountain environments.
Diego Monteiro, Léo Viallon-Galinier, Kévin Fourteau, Oscar Dick, and Pascal Hagenmuller
The Cryosphere, 20, 4515–4536, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-4515-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-4515-2026, 2026
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This research aims to improve dry-snow slab avalanche forecasts, particularly the propagation of cracks in weak layers, as current models rely on uncertain and difficult-to-measure parameters. We combined snowpack simulations with field measurements to link fracture energy to measurable and modelable snow properties. This new approach better reproduces observed crack lengths and allows weak layers to be tracked throughout the season, thereby improving operational avalanche risk assessment.
Aslak Grinsted, Nicholas Mossor Rathmann, Johannes Freitag, Josephine Lindsey-Clark, Sune Olander Rasmussen, Niels Fabrin Nymand, and Christine Schøtt Hvidberg
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3464, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3464, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
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Firn, the layer between snow and ice, controls how air is trapped in ice sheets and affects climate records. We studied two nearby sites in Greenland with different flow conditions to understand what controls how firn compacts. By combining observations with a new model that tracks movement, we show that sideways stretching of the ice strongly affects compaction. This means common methods may misinterpret past climate signals recorded in air bubbles.
Matthieu Lafaysse, Marie Dumont, Basile De Fleurian, Mathieu Fructus, Rafife Nheili, Léo Viallon-Galinier, Matthieu Baron, Aaron Boone, Axel Bouchet, Julien Brondex, Carlo Carmagnola, Bertrand Cluzet, Kévin Fourteau, Ange Haddjeri, Pascal Hagenmuller, Giulia Mazzotti, Marie Minvielle, Samuel Morin, Louis Quéno, Léon Roussel, Pierre Spandre, François Tuzet, and Vincent Vionnet
Geosci. Model Dev., 19, 6273–6334, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-6273-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-6273-2026, 2026
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This article is a comprehensive description of the 3.0.2 stable release of the Crocus snowpack model. It describes various new implementations since the last reference article in 2012 and a review of the available scientific evaluations and applications of the model. This provides guidance for the future of numerical snow modelling.
Faramarz Bagherzadeh, Johannes Freitag, Udo Frese, and Frank Wilhelms
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3185, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3185, 2026
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We studied a 130 m ice core from East Antarctica to better understand how snow slowly turns into ice and traps air over time. Using advanced image enhancement and 3D imaging, we examined the ice in unprecedented detail along the entire core. We found clear changes in the size, shape, and connections of air spaces with depth. These results provide new information that can improve interpretations of past climate and help refine models of ice formation and air movement in polar ice.
Audrey Goutard, Marion Réveillet, Fanny Brun, Delphine Six, Kevin Fourteau, Charles Amory, Xavier Fettweis, Mathieu Fructus, Arbindra Khadka, and Matthieu Lafaysse
The Cryosphere, 20, 2393–2416, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2393-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2393-2026, 2026
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A new scheme has been developed in a snowpack model (SURFEX/ISBA-Crocus), to consider the impact of liquid water dynamics on bare ice, including albedo feedback and refreezing. When applied to the Mera Glacier in Nepal, the model reveals strong seasonal effects on the energy and mass balance, with increased melting in dry seasons and significant refreezing during the monsoon. This development improves mass balance modeling under increasing rainfall and bare ice exposure due to climate warming.
Kévin Fourteau, Julien Brondex, Clément Cancès, and Marie Dumont
Geosci. Model Dev., 19, 3193–3212, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-3193-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-3193-2026, 2026
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The percolation of liquid water down snowpacks is a complex phenomenon, and its representation can sometimes be complicated for snowpack models. The goal of this article is to transpose some state-of-the-art strategies used for modeling liquid percolation in other media (such as rocks or soil) into snowpack models. With this, snowpack models can be made more efficient, requiring less time and power to perform their computation.
Kevin Fourteau, Kaoane Jondeau, Clément Cancès, and Marie Dumont
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-510, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-510, 2026
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In physics, entropy and the second principle of thermodynamics are related to the notion of stability. In applied mathematics, the same idea of entropy can be transposed to computer models, to ensure that they do not spontaneously oscillate or diverge. The goal of this work is to apply this type of methods to snowpack modelling. We show that entropy-consistent, and thus more robust models, can be designed following a few general criteria.
Léon Roussel, Marie Dumont, Marion Réveillet, Delphine Six, Marin Kneib, Pierre Nabat, Kévin Fourteau, Diego Monteiro, Simon Gascoin, Emmanuel Thibert, Antoine Rabatel, Jean-Emmanuel Sicart, Mylène Bonnefoy, Luc Piard, Olivier Laarman, Bruno Jourdain, Mathieu Fructus, Matthieu Vernay, and Matthieu Lafaysse
The Cryosphere, 19, 5201–5230, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-5201-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-5201-2025, 2025
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Saharan dust deposits frequently turn alpine glaciers orange. Mineral dust reduces snow albedo and increases snow and glaciers melt rate. Using physical modeling, we quantified the impact of dust on the Argentière Glacier over the period 2019–2022. We found that the contribution of mineral dust to the melt represents between 8 % and 16 % of Argentière Glacier summer melt. At specific locations, the impact of dust over one year can rise to an equivalent of 1.2 m of melted ice.
Florian Painer, Sepp Kipfstuhl, Martyn Drury, Tsutomu Uchida, Johannes Freitag, and Ilka Weikusat
The Cryosphere, 19, 5023–5044, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-5023-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-5023-2025, 2025
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Air clathrate hydrates trap ancient air in the deeper part of ice sheets. We use digital microscopy and automated image analysis to investigate the evolution of number, size, and shape of air clathrate hydrates from 1250 m depth to the bottom of the ice sheet. We confirm the previously found relation of changes in number and size with past climate and find a connection of their shape to changes in ice deformation. The results will help us to better understand air clathrate hydrates in deep ice.
Sindhu Vudayagiri, Bo Vinther, Johannes Freitag, Peter L. Langen, and Thomas Blunier
Clim. Past, 21, 517–528, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-517-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-517-2025, 2025
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Air trapped in polar ice during snowfall reflects atmospheric pressure at the time of occlusion, serving as a proxy for elevation. However, melting, firn structure changes, and air pressure variability complicate this relationship. We measured total air content (TAC) in the RECAP ice core from Renland ice cap, eastern Greenland, spanning 121 000 years. Melt layers and short-term TAC variations, whose origins remain unclear, present challenges in interpreting elevation changes.
Xavier Faïn, Sophie Szopa, Vaishali Naïk, Patricia Martinerie, David M. Etheridge, Rachael H. Rhodes, Cathy M. Trudinger, Vasilii V. Petrenko, Kévin Fourteau, and Philip Place
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 1105–1119, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1105-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1105-2025, 2025
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Carbon monoxide (CO) plays a crucial role in the atmosphere's oxidizing capacity. In this study, we analyse how historical (1850–2014) [CO] outputs from state-of-the-art global chemistry–climate models over Greenland and Antarctica are able to capture both absolute values and trends recorded in multi-site ice archives. A disparity in [CO] growth rates emerges in the Northern Hemisphere between models and observations from 1920–1975 CE, possibly linked to uncertainties in CO emission factors.
Emma Pearce, Dimitri Zigone, Coen Hofstede, Andreas Fichtner, Joachim Rimpot, Sune Olander Rasmussen, Johannes Freitag, and Olaf Eisen
The Cryosphere, 18, 4917–4932, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4917-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4917-2024, 2024
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Our study near EastGRIP camp in Greenland shows varying firn properties by direction (crucial for studying ice stream stability, structure, surface mass balance, and past climate conditions). We used dispersion curve analysis of Love and Rayleigh waves to show firn is nonuniform along and across the flow of an ice stream due to wind patterns, seasonal variability, and the proximity to the edge of the ice stream. This method better informs firn structure, advancing ice stream understanding.
Julien Westhoff, Johannes Freitag, Anaïs Orsi, Patricia Martinerie, Ilka Weikusat, Michael Dyonisius, Xavier Faïn, Kevin Fourteau, and Thomas Blunier
The Cryosphere, 18, 4379–4397, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4379-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4379-2024, 2024
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We study the EastGRIP area, Greenland, in detail with traditional and novel techniques. Due to the compaction of the ice, at a certain depth, atmospheric gases can no longer exchange, and the atmosphere is trapped in air bubbles in the ice. We find this depth by pumping air from a borehole, modeling, and using a new technique based on the optical appearance of the ice. Our results suggest that the close-off depth lies at around 58–61 m depth and more precisely at 58.3 m depth.
Benjamin Walter, Hagen Weigel, Sonja Wahl, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 18, 3633–3652, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3633-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3633-2024, 2024
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The topmost layer of a snowpack forms the interface to the atmosphere and is critical for the reflectance of solar radiation and avalanche formation. The effect of wind on the surface snow microstructure during precipitation events is poorly understood and quantified. We performed controlled lab experiments in a ring wind tunnel to systematically quantify the snow microstructure for different wind speeds, temperatures and precipitation intensities and to identify the relevant processes.
Kévin Fourteau, Johannes Freitag, Mika Malinen, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 18, 2831–2846, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2831-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2831-2024, 2024
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Understanding the settling of snow under its own weight has applications from avalanche forecasts to ice core interpretations. We study how this settling can be modeled using 3D images of the internal structure of snow and ice deformation mechanics. We found that classical ice mechanics, as used, for instance, in glacier flow, explain the compaction of dense polar snow but not that of lighter seasonal snow. How, exactly, the ice deforms during light snow compaction thus remains an open question.
Julien Meloche, Melody Sandells, Henning Löwe, Nick Rutter, Richard Essery, Ghislain Picard, Randall K. Scharien, Alexandre Langlois, Matthias Jaggi, Josh King, Peter Toose, Jérôme Bouffard, Alessandro Di Bella, and Michele Scagliola
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1583, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1583, 2024
Preprint archived
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Sea ice thickness is essential for climate studies. Radar altimetry has provided sea ice thickness measurement, but uncertainty arises from interaction of the signal with the snow cover. Therefore, modelling the signal interaction with the snow is necessary to improve retrieval. A radar model was used to simulate the radar signal from the snow-covered sea ice. This work paved the way to improved physical algorithm to retrieve snow depth and sea ice thickness for radar altimeter missions.
Anna Braun, Kévin Fourteau, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 18, 1653–1668, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1653-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1653-2024, 2024
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The specific surface of snow dictates key physical properties and continuously evolves in natural snowpacks. This is referred to as metamorphism. This work develops a rigorous physical model for this evolution, which is able to reproduce X-ray tomography measurements without using unphysical tuning parameters. Our results emphasize that snow crystal growth at the micrometer scale ultimately controls the pace of metamorphism.
Kévin Fourteau, Julien Brondex, Fanny Brun, and Marie Dumont
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 1903–1929, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1903-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1903-2024, 2024
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In this paper, we provide a novel numerical implementation for solving the energy exchanges at the surface of snow and ice. By combining the strong points of previous models, our solution leads to more accurate and robust simulations of the energy exchanges, surface temperature, and melt while preserving a reasonable computation time.
Amy R. Macfarlane, Henning Löwe, Lucille Gimenes, David N. Wagner, Ruzica Dadic, Rafael Ottersberg, Stefan Hämmerle, and Martin Schneebeli
The Cryosphere, 17, 5417–5434, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5417-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5417-2023, 2023
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Snow acts as an insulating blanket on Arctic sea ice, keeping the underlying ice "warm", relative to the atmosphere. Knowing the snow's thermal conductivity is essential for understanding winter ice growth. During the MOSAiC expedition, we measured the thermal conductivity of snow. We found spatial and vertical variability to overpower any temporal variability or dependency on underlying ice type and the thermal resistance to be directly influenced by snow height.
Julien Brondex, Kévin Fourteau, Marie Dumont, Pascal Hagenmuller, Neige Calonne, François Tuzet, and Henning Löwe
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 7075–7106, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-7075-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-7075-2023, 2023
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Vapor diffusion is one of the main processes governing snowpack evolution, and it must be accounted for in models. Recent attempts to represent vapor diffusion in numerical models have faced several difficulties regarding computational cost and mass and energy conservation. Here, we develop our own finite-element software to explore numerical approaches and enable us to overcome these difficulties. We illustrate the capability of these approaches on established numerical benchmarks.
Xavier Faïn, David M. Etheridge, Kévin Fourteau, Patricia Martinerie, Cathy M. Trudinger, Rachael H. Rhodes, Nathan J. Chellman, Ray L. Langenfelds, Joseph R. McConnell, Mark A. J. Curran, Edward J. Brook, Thomas Blunier, Grégory Teste, Roberto Grilli, Anthony Lemoine, William T. Sturges, Boris Vannière, Johannes Freitag, and Jérôme Chappellaz
Clim. Past, 19, 2287–2311, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-2287-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-2287-2023, 2023
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We report on a 3000-year record of carbon monoxide (CO) levels in the Southern Hemisphere's high latitudes by combining ice core and firn air measurements with modern direct atmospheric samples. Antarctica [CO] remained stable (–835 to 1500 CE), decreased during the Little Ice Age, and peaked around 1985 CE. Such evolution reflects stable biomass burning CO emissions before industrialization, followed by growth from CO anthropogenic sources, which decline after 1985 due to improved combustion.
Zhuo Wang, Ailsa Chung, Daniel Steinhage, Frédéric Parrenin, Johannes Freitag, and Olaf Eisen
The Cryosphere, 17, 4297–4314, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4297-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4297-2023, 2023
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We combine radar-based observed internal layer stratigraphy of the ice sheet with a 1-D ice flow model in the Dome Fuji region. This results in maps of age and age density of the basal ice, the basal thermal conditions, and reconstructed accumulation rates. Based on modeled age we then identify four potential candidates for ice which is potentially 1.5 Myr old. Our map of basal thermal conditions indicates that melting prevails over the presence of stagnant ice in the study area.
Nora Hirsch, Alexandra Zuhr, Thomas Münch, Maria Hörhold, Johannes Freitag, Remi Dallmayr, and Thomas Laepple
The Cryosphere, 17, 4207–4221, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4207-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4207-2023, 2023
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Stable water isotopes from firn cores provide valuable information on past climates, yet their utility is hampered by stratigraphic noise, i.e. the irregular deposition and wind-driven redistribution of snow. We found stratigraphic noise on the Antarctic Plateau to be related to the local accumulation rate, snow surface roughness and slope inclination, which can guide future decisions on sampling locations and thus increase the resolution of climate reconstructions from low-accumulation areas.
Fanny Brun, Owen King, Marion Réveillet, Charles Amory, Anton Planchot, Etienne Berthier, Amaury Dehecq, Tobias Bolch, Kévin Fourteau, Julien Brondex, Marie Dumont, Christoph Mayer, Silvan Leinss, Romain Hugonnet, and Patrick Wagnon
The Cryosphere, 17, 3251–3268, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3251-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3251-2023, 2023
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The South Col Glacier is a small body of ice and snow located on the southern ridge of Mt. Everest. A recent study proposed that South Col Glacier is rapidly losing mass. In this study, we examined the glacier thickness change for the period 1984–2017 and found no thickness change. To reconcile these results, we investigate wind erosion and surface energy and mass balance and find that melt is unlikely a dominant process, contrary to previous findings.
Ghislain Picard, Henning Löwe, and Christian Mätzler
The Cryosphere, 16, 3861–3866, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3861-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3861-2022, 2022
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Microwave satellite observations used to monitor the cryosphere require radiative transfer models for their interpretation. These models represent how microwaves are scattered by snow and ice. However no existing theory is suitable for all types of snow and ice found on Earth. We adapted a recently published generic scattering theory to snow and show how it may improve the representation of snows with intermediate densities (~500 kg/m3) and/or with coarse grains at high microwave frequencies.
Julien Westhoff, Giulia Sinnl, Anders Svensson, Johannes Freitag, Helle Astrid Kjær, Paul Vallelonga, Bo Vinther, Sepp Kipfstuhl, Dorthe Dahl-Jensen, and Ilka Weikusat
Clim. Past, 18, 1011–1034, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1011-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1011-2022, 2022
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We present a melt event record from an ice core from central Greenland, which covers the past 10 000 years. Our record displays warm summer events, which can be used to enhance our understanding of the past climate. We compare our data to anomalies in tree ring width, which also represents summer temperatures, and find a good correlation. Furthermore, we investigate an outstandingly warm event in the year 986 AD or 991 AD, which has not been analyzed before.
Xavier Faïn, Rachael H. Rhodes, Philip Place, Vasilii V. Petrenko, Kévin Fourteau, Nathan Chellman, Edward Crosier, Joseph R. McConnell, Edward J. Brook, Thomas Blunier, Michel Legrand, and Jérôme Chappellaz
Clim. Past, 18, 631–647, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-631-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-631-2022, 2022
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Carbon monoxide (CO) is a regulated pollutant and one of the key components determining the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. In this study, we analyzed five ice cores from Greenland at high resolution for CO concentrations by coupling laser spectrometry with continuous melting. By combining these new datasets, we produced an upper-bound estimate of past atmospheric CO abundance since preindustrial times for the Northern Hemisphere high latitudes, covering the period from 1700 to 1957 CE.
Konstantin Schürholt, Julia Kowalski, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 16, 903–923, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-903-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-903-2022, 2022
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This companion paper deals with numerical particularities of partial differential equations underlying 1D snow models. In this first part we neglect mechanical settling and demonstrate that the nonlinear coupling between diffusive transport (heat and vapor), phase changes and ice mass conservation contains a wave instability that may be relevant for weak layer formation. Numerical requirements are discussed in view of the underlying homogenization scheme.
Anna Simson, Henning Löwe, and Julia Kowalski
The Cryosphere, 15, 5423–5445, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5423-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5423-2021, 2021
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This companion paper deals with numerical particularities of partial differential equations underlying one-dimensional snow models. In this second part we include mechanical settling and develop a new hybrid (Eulerian–Lagrangian) method for solving the advection-dominated ice mass conservation on a moving mesh alongside Eulerian diffusion (heat and vapor) and phase changes. The scheme facilitates a modular and extendable solver strategy while retaining controls on numerical accuracy.
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Short summary
Ice crystals often show a rod-like, vertical orientation in snow and firn; they are said to be anisotropic. The stiffness in the vertical direction therefore differs from the horizontal, which, for example, impacts the propagation of seismic waves. To quantify this anisotropy, we conducted finite-element simulations of 391 snow, firn, and ice core microstructures obtained from X-ray tomography. We then derived a parameterization that may be employed for advanced seismic studies in polar regions.
Ice crystals often show a rod-like, vertical orientation in snow and firn; they are said to be...
