Articles | Volume 16, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4679-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4679-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
The contribution of Humboldt Glacier, northern Greenland, to sea-level rise through 2100 constrained by recent observations of speedup and retreat
Fluid Dynamics and Solid Mechanics Group, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Matthew J. Hoffman
Fluid Dynamics and Solid Mechanics Group, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Mauro Perego
Center for Computing Research, Sandia National Laboratories,
Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA
Stephen F. Price
Fluid Dynamics and Solid Mechanics Group, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Ian M. Howat
Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
School of Earth Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Related authors
Trevor R. Hillebrand, Matthew J. Hoffman, Holly K. Han, Mauro Perego, Alexander O. Hager, Andrew Nolan, Xylar Asay-Davis, Stephen F. Price, Jerry Watkins, and Max Carlson
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3942, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3942, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
We present new simulations that complement our contribution to the ISMIP6-Antarctica-2300 ensemble. We find significant mass loss after 2300 under both low-emissions and present-day forcing. Thermal evolution is extremely important, with fixed temperature yielding up to twice as much mass loss as simulations with evolving temperature. External forcing uncertainty dominates the ensemble spread after 2050. Initial condition uncertainty could explain the inter-model spread in the ISMIP6 ensembles.
John D. Jakeman, Mauro Perego, D. Thomas Seidl, Tucker A. Hartland, Trevor R. Hillebrand, Matthew J. Hoffman, and Stephen F. Price
Earth Syst. Dynam., 16, 513–544, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-513-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-513-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigated the computational benefits of using multiple models of varying cost and accuracy to quantify uncertainty in the mass change of Humboldt Glacier, Greenland, between 2007 and 2100 using a single climate change scenario. Despite some models being incapable of capturing the local features of the ice-flow fields, using multiple models reduced the error in the estimated statistics by over an order of magnitude when compared to an approach that only used a single accurate model.
Sanket Jantre, Matthew J. Hoffman, Nathan M. Urban, Trevor Hillebrand, Mauro Perego, Stephen Price, and John D. Jakeman
The Cryosphere, 18, 5207–5238, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5207-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5207-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate potential sea-level rise from Antarctica's Lambert Glacier, once considered stable but now at risk due to projected ocean warming by 2100. Using statistical methods and limited supercomputer simulations, we calibrated our ice-sheet model using three observables. We find that, under high greenhouse gas emissions, glacier retreat could raise sea levels by 46–133 mm by 2300. This study highlights the need for better observations to reduce uncertainty in ice-sheet model projections.
Trevor R. Hillebrand, John O. Stone, Michelle Koutnik, Courtney King, Howard Conway, Brenda Hall, Keir Nichols, Brent Goehring, and Mette K. Gillespie
The Cryosphere, 15, 3329–3354, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3329-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3329-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We present chronologies from Darwin and Hatherton glaciers to better constrain ice sheet retreat during the last deglaciation in the Ross Sector of Antarctica. We use a glacier flowband model and an ensemble of 3D ice sheet model simulations to show that (i) the whole glacier system likely thinned steadily from about 9–3 ka, and (ii) the grounding line likely reached the Darwin–Hatherton Glacier System at about 3 ka, which is ≥3.8 kyr later than was suggested by previous reconstructions.
Trevor R. Hillebrand, Matthew J. Hoffman, Holly K. Han, Mauro Perego, Alexander O. Hager, Andrew Nolan, Xylar Asay-Davis, Stephen F. Price, Jerry Watkins, and Max Carlson
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3942, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3942, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
We present new simulations that complement our contribution to the ISMIP6-Antarctica-2300 ensemble. We find significant mass loss after 2300 under both low-emissions and present-day forcing. Thermal evolution is extremely important, with fixed temperature yielding up to twice as much mass loss as simulations with evolving temperature. External forcing uncertainty dominates the ensemble spread after 2050. Initial condition uncertainty could explain the inter-model spread in the ISMIP6 ensembles.
Tim Hill, Derek Bingham, Gwenn E. Flowers, and Matthew J. Hoffman
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 4045–4074, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4045-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4045-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Subglacial drainage models represent water flow beneath glaciers and ice sheets. Here, we train fast statistical models called Gaussian process (GP) emulators to accelerate subglacial drainage modelling by ~ 1000 times. We use the fast emulator predictions to show that three of the model parameters are responsible for > 90 % of the variance in model outputs. The fast GP emulators will enable future uncertainty quantification and calibration of these models.
Shfaqat A. Khan, Helene Seroussi, Mathieu Morlighem, William Colgan, Veit Helm, Gong Cheng, Danjal Berg, Valentina R. Barletta, Nicolaj K. Larsen, William Kochtitzky, Michiel van den Broeke, Kurt H. Kjær, Andy Aschwanden, Brice Noël, Jason E. Box, Joseph A. MacGregor, Robert S. Fausto, Kenneth D. Mankoff, Ian M. Howat, Kuba Oniszk, Dominik Fahrner, Anja Løkkegaard, Eigil Y. H. Lippert, Alicia Bråtner, and Javed Hassan
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 3047–3071, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-3047-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-3047-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The surface elevation of the Greenland Ice Sheet is changing due to surface mass balance processes and ice dynamics, each exhibiting distinct spatiotemporal patterns. Here, we employ satellite and airborne altimetry data with fine spatial (1 km) and temporal (monthly) resolutions to document this spatiotemporal evolution from 2003 to 2023. This dataset of fine-resolution altimetry data in both space and time will support studies of ice mass loss and be useful for GIS ice sheet modeling.
John D. Jakeman, Mauro Perego, D. Thomas Seidl, Tucker A. Hartland, Trevor R. Hillebrand, Matthew J. Hoffman, and Stephen F. Price
Earth Syst. Dynam., 16, 513–544, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-513-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-513-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigated the computational benefits of using multiple models of varying cost and accuracy to quantify uncertainty in the mass change of Humboldt Glacier, Greenland, between 2007 and 2100 using a single climate change scenario. Despite some models being incapable of capturing the local features of the ice-flow fields, using multiple models reduced the error in the estimated statistics by over an order of magnitude when compared to an approach that only used a single accurate model.
Irena Vaňková, Xylar Asay-Davis, Carolyn Branecky Begeman, Darin Comeau, Alexander Hager, Matthew Hoffman, Stephen F. Price, and Jonathan Wolfe
The Cryosphere, 19, 507–523, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-507-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-507-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We study the effect of subglacial discharge on basal melting for Antarctic ice shelves. We find that the results from previous studies of vertical ice fronts and two-dimensional ice tongues do not translate to the rotating ice-shelf framework. The melt rate dependence on discharge is stronger in the rotating framework. Further, there is a substantial melt-rate sensitivity to the location of the discharge along the grounding line relative to the directionality of the Coriolis force.
Sanket Jantre, Matthew J. Hoffman, Nathan M. Urban, Trevor Hillebrand, Mauro Perego, Stephen Price, and John D. Jakeman
The Cryosphere, 18, 5207–5238, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5207-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5207-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate potential sea-level rise from Antarctica's Lambert Glacier, once considered stable but now at risk due to projected ocean warming by 2100. Using statistical methods and limited supercomputer simulations, we calibrated our ice-sheet model using three observables. We find that, under high greenhouse gas emissions, glacier retreat could raise sea levels by 46–133 mm by 2300. This study highlights the need for better observations to reduce uncertainty in ice-sheet model projections.
Matthew J. Hoffman, Carolyn Branecky Begeman, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Darin Comeau, Alice Barthel, Stephen F. Price, and Jonathan D. Wolfe
The Cryosphere, 18, 2917–2937, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2917-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2917-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica is susceptible to the intrusion of deep, warm ocean water that could increase the melting at the ice-shelf base by a factor of 10. We show that representing this potential melt regime switch in a low-resolution climate model requires careful treatment of iceberg melting and ocean mixing. We also demonstrate a possible ice-shelf melt domino effect where increased melting of nearby ice shelves can lead to the melt regime switch at Filchner–Ronne.
Hélène Seroussi, Vincent Verjans, Sophie Nowicki, Antony J. Payne, Heiko Goelzer, William H. Lipscomb, Ayako Abe-Ouchi, Cécile Agosta, Torsten Albrecht, Xylar Asay-Davis, Alice Barthel, Reinhard Calov, Richard Cullather, Christophe Dumas, Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Rupert Gladstone, Nicholas R. Golledge, Jonathan M. Gregory, Ralf Greve, Tore Hattermann, Matthew J. Hoffman, Angelika Humbert, Philippe Huybrechts, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Thomas Kleiner, Eric Larour, Gunter R. Leguy, Daniel P. Lowry, Chistopher M. Little, Mathieu Morlighem, Frank Pattyn, Tyler Pelle, Stephen F. Price, Aurélien Quiquet, Ronja Reese, Nicole-Jeanne Schlegel, Andrew Shepherd, Erika Simon, Robin S. Smith, Fiammetta Straneo, Sainan Sun, Luke D. Trusel, Jonas Van Breedam, Peter Van Katwyk, Roderik S. W. van de Wal, Ricarda Winkelmann, Chen Zhao, Tong Zhang, and Thomas Zwinger
The Cryosphere, 17, 5197–5217, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5197-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5197-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Mass loss from Antarctica is a key contributor to sea level rise over the 21st century, and the associated uncertainty dominates sea level projections. We highlight here the Antarctic glaciers showing the largest changes and quantify the main sources of uncertainty in their future evolution using an ensemble of ice flow models. We show that on top of Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers, Totten and Moscow University glaciers show rapid changes and a strong sensitivity to warmer ocean conditions.
Hyein Jeong, Adrian K. Turner, Andrew F. Roberts, Milena Veneziani, Stephen F. Price, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Luke P. Van Roekel, Wuyin Lin, Peter M. Caldwell, Hyo-Seok Park, Jonathan D. Wolfe, and Azamat Mametjanov
The Cryosphere, 17, 2681–2700, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2681-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2681-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We find that E3SM-HR reproduces the main features of the Antarctic coastal polynyas. Despite the high amount of coastal sea ice production, the densest water masses are formed in the open ocean. Biases related to the lack of dense water formation are associated with overly strong atmospheric polar easterlies. Our results indicate that the large-scale polar atmospheric circulation must be accurately simulated in models to properly reproduce Antarctic dense water formation.
Mira Berdahl, Gunter Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, Nathan M. Urban, and Matthew J. Hoffman
The Cryosphere, 17, 1513–1543, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1513-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1513-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Contributions to future sea level from the Antarctic Ice Sheet remain poorly constrained. One reason is that ice sheet model initialization methods can have significant impacts on how the ice sheet responds to future forcings. We investigate the impacts of two key parameters used during model initialization. We find that these parameter choices alone can impact multi-century sea level rise by up to 2 m, emphasizing the need to carefully consider these choices for sea level rise predictions.
Alexander O. Hager, Matthew J. Hoffman, Stephen F. Price, and Dustin M. Schroeder
The Cryosphere, 16, 3575–3599, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3575-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3575-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The presence of water beneath glaciers is a control on glacier speed and ocean-caused melting, yet it has been unclear whether sizable volumes of water can exist beneath Antarctic glaciers or how this water may flow along the glacier bed. We use computer simulations, supported by observations, to show that enough water exists at the base of Thwaites Glacier, Antarctica, to form "rivers" beneath the glacier. These rivers likely moderate glacier speed and may influence its rate of retreat.
Thomas R. Chudley, Ian M. Howat, Bidhyananda Yadav, and Myoung-Jong Noh
The Cryosphere, 16, 2629–2642, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2629-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2629-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Sentinel-2 images are subject to distortion due to orthorectification error, which makes it difficult to extract reliable glacier velocity fields from images from different orbits. Here, we use a complete record of velocity fields at four Greenlandic outlet glaciers to empirically estimate the systematic error, allowing us to correct cross-track glacier velocity fields to a comparable accuracy to other medium-resolution satellite datasets.
Trevor R. Hillebrand, John O. Stone, Michelle Koutnik, Courtney King, Howard Conway, Brenda Hall, Keir Nichols, Brent Goehring, and Mette K. Gillespie
The Cryosphere, 15, 3329–3354, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3329-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3329-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We present chronologies from Darwin and Hatherton glaciers to better constrain ice sheet retreat during the last deglaciation in the Ross Sector of Antarctica. We use a glacier flowband model and an ensemble of 3D ice sheet model simulations to show that (i) the whole glacier system likely thinned steadily from about 9–3 ka, and (ii) the grounding line likely reached the Darwin–Hatherton Glacier System at about 3 ka, which is ≥3.8 kyr later than was suggested by previous reconstructions.
Tong Zhang, Stephen F. Price, Matthew J. Hoffman, Mauro Perego, and Xylar Asay-Davis
The Cryosphere, 14, 3407–3424, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3407-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3407-2020, 2020
Hélène Seroussi, Sophie Nowicki, Antony J. Payne, Heiko Goelzer, William H. Lipscomb, Ayako Abe-Ouchi, Cécile Agosta, Torsten Albrecht, Xylar Asay-Davis, Alice Barthel, Reinhard Calov, Richard Cullather, Christophe Dumas, Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Rupert Gladstone, Nicholas R. Golledge, Jonathan M. Gregory, Ralf Greve, Tore Hattermann, Matthew J. Hoffman, Angelika Humbert, Philippe Huybrechts, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Thomas Kleiner, Eric Larour, Gunter R. Leguy, Daniel P. Lowry, Chistopher M. Little, Mathieu Morlighem, Frank Pattyn, Tyler Pelle, Stephen F. Price, Aurélien Quiquet, Ronja Reese, Nicole-Jeanne Schlegel, Andrew Shepherd, Erika Simon, Robin S. Smith, Fiammetta Straneo, Sainan Sun, Luke D. Trusel, Jonas Van Breedam, Roderik S. W. van de Wal, Ricarda Winkelmann, Chen Zhao, Tong Zhang, and Thomas Zwinger
The Cryosphere, 14, 3033–3070, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3033-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3033-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Antarctic ice sheet has been losing mass over at least the past 3 decades in response to changes in atmospheric and oceanic conditions. This study presents an ensemble of model simulations of the Antarctic evolution over the 2015–2100 period based on various ice sheet models, climate forcings and emission scenarios. Results suggest that the West Antarctic ice sheet will continue losing a large amount of ice, while the East Antarctic ice sheet could experience increased snow accumulation.
Cited articles
Åkesson, H., Morlighem, M., O'Regan, M., and Jakobsson, M.: Future
Projections of Petermann Glacier Under Ocean Warming Depend Strongly on
Friction Law, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 126,
e2020JF005921, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JF005921, 2021.
Albrecht, T., Martin, M., Haseloff, M., Winkelmann, R., and Levermann, A.: Parameterization for subgrid-scale motion of ice-shelf calving fronts, The Cryosphere, 5, 35–44, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-35-2011, 2011.
Amaral, T., Bartholomaus, T. C., and Enderlin, E. M.: Evaluation of Iceberg
Calving Models Against Observations From Greenland Outlet Glaciers, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 125, e2019JF005444, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JF005444, 2020.
Asay-Davis, X. S., Cornford, S. L., Durand, G., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Gladstone, R. M., Gudmundsson, G. H., Hattermann, T., Holland, D. M., Holland, D., Holland, P. R., Martin, D. F., Mathiot, P., Pattyn, F., and Seroussi, H.: Experimental design for three interrelated marine ice sheet and ocean model intercomparison projects: MISMIP v. 3 (MISMIP +), ISOMIP v. 2 (ISOMIP +) and MISOMIP v. 1 (MISOMIP1), Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 2471–2497, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-2471-2016, 2016.
Aschwanden, A., Bueler, E., Khroulev, C., and Blatter, H.: An enthalpy
formulation for glaciers and ice sheets, J. Glaciol., 58,
441–457, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JoG11J088, 2012.
Banwell, A. F., MacAyeal, D. R., and Sergienko, O. V.: Breakup of the Larsen
B Ice Shelf triggered by chain reaction drainage of supraglacial lakes,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 5872–5876, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL057694, 2013.
Barnes, J. M. and Gudmundsson, G. H.: The predictive power of ice sheet models and the regional sensitivity of ice loss to basal sliding parameterisations: a case study of Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers, West Antarctica, The Cryosphere, 16, 4291–4304, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4291-2022, 2022.
Barthel, A., Agosta, C., Little, C. M., Hattermann, T., Jourdain, N. C., Goelzer, H., Nowicki, S., Seroussi, H., Straneo, F., and Bracegirdle, T. J.: CMIP5 model selection for ISMIP6 ice sheet model forcing: Greenland and Antarctica, The Cryosphere, 14, 855–879, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-855-2020, 2020.
Benn, D. I., Warren, C. R., and Mottram, R. H.: Calving processes and the
dynamics of calving glaciers, Earth-Sci. Rev., 82, 143–179,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.02.002, 2007.
Benn, D. I., Åström, J., Zwinger, T., Todd, J., Nick, F. M., Cook,
S., Hulton, N. R. J., and Luckman, A.: Melt-under-cutting and
buoyancy-driven calving from tidewater glaciers: new insights from discrete
element and continuum model simulations, J. Glaciol., 63,
691–702, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2017.41, 2017.
Blatter, H.: Velocity and stress fields in grounded glaciers: a simple
algorithm for including deviatoric stress gradients, J. Glaciol.,
41, 333–344, https://doi.org/10.3189/S002214300001621X, 1995.
Box, J. E. and Decker, D. T.: Greenland marine-terminating glacier area
changes: 2000–2010, Ann. Glaciol., 52, 91–98, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756411799096312, 2011.
Brondex, J., Gagliardini, O., Gillet-Chaulet, F., and Durand, G.:
Sensitivity of grounding line dynamics to the choice of the friction law,
J. Glaciol., 63, 854–866, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2017.51, 2017.
Brondex, J., Gillet-Chaulet, F., and Gagliardini, O.: Sensitivity of centennial mass loss projections of the Amundsen basin to the friction law, The Cryosphere, 13, 177–195, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-177-2019, 2019.
Budd, W. F., Keage, P. L., and Blundy, N. A.: Empirical Studies of Ice
Sliding, J. Glaciol., 23, 157–170, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000029804, 1979.
Budd, W. F., Jenssen, D., and Smith, I. N.: A Three-Dimensional
Time-Dependent Model of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, Ann. Glaciol.,
5, 29–36, https://doi.org/10.3189/1984AoG5-1-29-36, 1984.
Cai, C., Rignot, E., Menemenlis, D., and Nakayama, Y.: Observations and
modeling of ocean-induced melt beneath Petermann Glacier Ice Shelf in
northwestern Greenland, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 8396–8403,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL073711, 2017.
Carr, J. R., Vieli, A., Stokes, C. R., Jamieson, S. S. R., Palmer, S. J.,
Christoffersen, P., Dowdeswell, J. A., Nick, F. M., Blankenship, D. D., and
Young, D. A.: Basal topographic controls on rapid retreat of Humboldt
Glacier, northern Greenland, J. Glaciol., 61, 137–150, https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J128, 2015.
Choi, Y., Morlighem, M., Rignot, E., Mouginot, J., and Wood, M.: Modeling
the Response of Nioghalvfjerdsfjorden and Zachariae Isstrøm Glaciers,
Greenland, to Ocean Forcing Over the Next Century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 11071–11079, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075174, 2017.
Choi, Y., Morlighem, M., Wood, M., and Bondzio, J. H.: Comparison of four calving laws to model Greenland outlet glaciers, The Cryosphere, 12, 3735–3746, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3735-2018, 2018.
Choi, Y., Morlighem, M., Rignot, E., and Wood, M.: Ice dynamics will remain
a primary driver of Greenland ice sheet mass loss over the next century,
Communications Earth & Environment, 2, 26, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00092-z, 2021.
DeConto, R. M. and Pollard, D.: Contribution of Antarctica to past and
future sea-level rise, Nature, 531, 591–597, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature17145, 2016.
De Rydt, J., Reese, R., Paolo, F. S., and Gudmundsson, G. H.: Drivers of Pine Island Glacier speed-up between 1996 and 2016, The Cryosphere, 15, 113–132, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-113-2021, 2021.
Downs, J. and Johnson, J. V.: A rapidly retreating, marine-terminating
glacier's modeled response to perturbations in basal traction, J. Glaciol., 68, 891–900, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2022.5, 2022.
Edwards, T. L., Nowicki, S., Marzeion, B., Hock, R., Goelzer, H., Seroussi,
H., Jourdain, N. C., Slater, D. A., Turner, F. E., Smith, C. J., McKenna, C.
M., Simon, E., Abe-Ouchi, A., Gregory, J. M., Larour, E., Lipscomb, W. H.,
Payne, A. J., Shepherd, A., Agosta, C., Alexander, P., Albrecht, T.,
Anderson, B., Asay-Davis, X., Aschwanden, A., Barthel, A., Bliss, A., Calov,
R., Chambers, C., Champollion, N., Choi, Y., Cullather, R., Cuzzone, J.,
Dumas, C., Felikson, D., Fettweis, X., Fujita, K., Galton-Fenzi, B. K.,
Gladstone, R., Golledge, N. R., Greve, R., Hattermann, T., Hoffman, M. J.,
Humbert, A., Huss, M., Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, W., Kleiner, T.,
Kraaijenbrink, P., Le Clec'h, S., Lee, V., Leguy, G. R., Little, C. M.,
Lowry, D. P., Malles, J.-H., Martin, D. F., Maussion, F., Morlighem, M.,
O'Neill, J. F., Nias, I., Pattyn, F., Pelle, T., Price, S. F., Quiquet, A.,
Radić, V., Reese, R., Rounce, D. R., Rückamp, M., Sakai, A., Shafer,
C., Schlegel, N.-J., Shannon, S., Smith, R. S., Straneo, F., Sun, S.,
Tarasov, L., Trusel, L. D., Van Breedam, J., van de Wal, R., van den Broeke,
M., Winkelmann, R., Zekollari, H., Zhao, C., Zhang, T., and Zwinger, T.:
Projected land ice contributions to twenty-first-century sea level rise,
Nature, 593, 74–82, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03302-y, 2021.
Flowers, G. E.: Hydrology and the future of the Greenland Ice Sheet, Nat.
Commun., 9, 2729, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05002-0, 2018.
Fowler, A. C.: Weertman, Lliboutry and the development of sliding theory,
J. Glaciol., 56, 965–972, https://doi.org/10.3189/002214311796406112, 2010.
Gillet-Chaulet, F., Durand, G., Gagliardini, O., Mosbeux, C., Mouginot, J.,
Rémy, F., and Ritz, C.: Assimilation of surface velocities acquired
between 1996 and 2010 to constrain the form of the basal friction law under
Pine Island Glacier, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 10311–10321,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069937, 2016.
Glen, J. W.: The creep of polycrystalline ice, P. Roy.
Soc. Lond. A: Mat., 228,
519–538, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1955.0066, 1955.
Goelzer, H., Huybrechts, P., Fürst, J. J., Nick, F. M., Andersen, M. L.,
Edwards, T. L., Fettweis, X., Payne, A. J., and Shannon, S.: Sensitivity of
Greenland Ice Sheet Projections to Model Formulations, J. Glaciol., 59, 733–749, https://doi.org/10.3189/2013JoG12J182, 2013.
Goelzer, H., Nowicki, S., Payne, A., Larour, E., Seroussi, H., Lipscomb, W. H., Gregory, J., Abe-Ouchi, A., Shepherd, A., Simon, E., Agosta, C., Alexander, P., Aschwanden, A., Barthel, A., Calov, R., Chambers, C., Choi, Y., Cuzzone, J., Dumas, C., Edwards, T., Felikson, D., Fettweis, X., Golledge, N. R., Greve, R., Humbert, A., Huybrechts, P., Le clec'h, S., Lee, V., Leguy, G., Little, C., Lowry, D. P., Morlighem, M., Nias, I., Quiquet, A., Rückamp, M., Schlegel, N.-J., Slater, D. A., Smith, R. S., Straneo, F., Tarasov, L., van de Wal, R., and van den Broeke, M.: The future sea-level contribution of the Greenland ice sheet: a multi-model ensemble study of ISMIP6, The Cryosphere, 14, 3071–3096, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3071-2020, 2020.
Hager, A. O., Hoffman, M. J., Price, S. F., and Schroeder, D. M.: Persistent, extensive channelized drainage modeled beneath Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica, The Cryosphere, 16, 3575–3599, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3575-2022, 2022.
Hill, E. A., Carr, J. R., Stokes, C. R., and Gudmundsson, G. H.: Dynamic changes in outlet glaciers in northern Greenland from 1948 to 2015, The Cryosphere, 12, 3243–3263, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3243-2018, 2018.
Hillebrand, T. R., Hoffman, M. J., Perego, M., and Price, S. F.: MPAS-Albany Land
Ice model simulations of Humboldt Glacier, North Greenland, from 2007–2100, Zenodo [code and data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5914667,
2022.
Hoffman, M. and Price, S.: Feedbacks between coupled subglacial hydrology
and glacier dynamics, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 119,
414–436, 2014.
Hoffman, M. J., Perego, M., Price, S. F., Lipscomb, W. H., Zhang, T., Jacobsen, D., Tezaur, I., Salinger, A. G., Tuminaro, R., and Bertagna, L.: MPAS-Albany Land Ice (MALI): a variable-resolution ice sheet model for Earth system modeling using Voronoi grids, Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 3747–3780, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-3747-2018, 2018.
Holland, P. R., Jenkins, A., and Holland, D. M.: The Response of Ice Shelf Basal Melting to Variations in Ocean Temperature, J. Climate, 21, 2558–2572, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JCLI1909.1, 2008.
Howat, I. M., Negrete, A., and Smith, B. E.: The Greenland Ice Mapping Project (GIMP) land classification and surface elevation data sets, The Cryosphere, 8, 1509–1518, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1509-2014, 2014.
Howat, I.: MEaSUREs Greenland Ice Mapping Project (GIMP) 2000 Image Mosaic, Version 1, NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center
Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA [data set],
https://doi.org/10.5067/4RNTRRE4JCYD 2017.
The IMBIE team: Mass balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet from 1992 to 2018,
Nature, 579, 233–239, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1855-2, 2019.
Jenkins, A.: A one-dimensional model of ice shelf-ocean interaction, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 96, 20671–20677, https://doi.org/10.1029/91JC01842, 1991.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., Howat, I. M., Scambos, T., and Moon, T.:
Greenland flow variability from ice-sheet-wide velocity mapping, J. Glaciol., 56, 415–430, https://doi.org/10.3189/002214310792447734, 2010.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., Howat, I. M., Floricioiu, D., Alley, R. B.,
Truffer, M., and Fahnestock, M.: Seasonal to decadal scale variations in the
surface velocity of Jakobshavn Isbrae, Greenland: Observation and
model-based analysis, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 117, F02030,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002110, 2012.
Joughin, I., Smith, B., Howat, I., and Scambos, T.: MEaSUREs Greenland Ice Sheet Velocity Map from InSAR Data, Version 2,
NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA
[data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/OC7B04ZM9G6Q, 2015.
Joughin, I., B. Smith, I. Howat, and T. Scambos: MEaSUREs Multi-year
Greenland Ice Sheet Velocity Mosaic, Version 1, NASA
National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA [data
set], https://doi.org/10.5067/QUA5Q9SVMSJG, 2016.
Joughin, I., Moon, T., Joughin, J., and Black, T.: MEaSUREs Annual Greenland Outlet Glacier Terminus Positions from SAR Mosaics, Version 1,
NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA
[data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/DC0MLBOCL3EL, 2017.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., and Howat, I. M.: A complete map of Greenland ice
velocity derived from satellite data collected over 20 years, J. Glaciol., 64, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2017.73,
2018.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., and Schoof, C. G.: Regularized Coulomb Friction
Laws for Ice Sheet Sliding: Application to Pine Island Glacier, Antarctica,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 4764–4771, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL082526, 2019.
Joughin, I., Howat, I., Smith, B., and Scambos, T.: MEaSUREs Greenland Ice Velocity: Selected Glacier Site Velocity Maps from InSAR, Version 4,
NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA
[data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/GQZQY2M5507Z, 2021.
Jourdain, N. C., Asay-Davis, X., Hattermann, T., Straneo, F., Seroussi, H., Little, C. M., and Nowicki, S.: A protocol for calculating basal melt rates in the ISMIP6 Antarctic ice sheet projections, The Cryosphere, 14, 3111–3134, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3111-2020, 2020.
Kehrl, L. M., Joughin, I., Shean, D. E., Floricioiu, D., and Krieger, L.:
Seasonal and interannual variabilities in terminus position, glacier
velocity, and surface elevation at Helheim and Kangerlussuaq Glaciers from
2008 to 2016, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 122,
1635–1652, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JF004133, 2017.
King, M. D., Howat, I. M., Candela, S. G., Noh, M. J., Jeong, S., Noël,
B. P., van den Broeke, M. R., Wouters, B., and Negrete, A.: Dynamic ice
loss from the Greenland Ice Sheet driven by sustained glacier retreat,
Commun. Earth Environ., 1, 1, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-020-0001-2, 2020.
Moon, T. and Joughin, I.: Changes in ice front position on Greenland's
outlet glaciers from 1992 to 2007, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 113, F02022, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JF000927, 2008.
Moon, T., Joughin, I., Smith, B., van den Broeke, M. R., van de Berg, W. J.,
Noël, B., and Usher, M.: Distinct patterns of seasonal Greenland glacier
velocity, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 7209–7216, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL061836, 2014.
Morlighem, M.: IceBridge BedMachine Greenland, Version 3, NASA National Snow and Ice Data
Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/2CIX82HUV88Y, 2017.
Morlighem, M., Bondzio, J., Seroussi, H., Rignot, E., Larour, E., Humbert,
A., and Rebuffi, S.: Modeling of Store Gletscher's calving dynamics, West
Greenland, in response to ocean thermal forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 2659–2666, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL067695,
2016.
Morlighem, M., Williams, C. N., Rignot, E., An, L., Arndt, J. E., Bamber, J.
L., Catania, G., Chauché, N., Dowdeswell, J. A., Dorschel, B., Fenty,
I., Hogan, K., Howat, I., Hubbard, A., Jakobsson, M., Jordan, T. M.,
Kjeldsen, K. K., Millan, R., Mayer, L., Mouginot, J., Noël, B. P. Y.,
O'Cofaigh, C., Palmer, S., Rysgaard, S., Seroussi, H., Siegert, M. J.,
Slabon, P., Straneo, F., van den Broeke, M. R., Weinrebe, W., Wood, M., and
Zinglersen, K. B.: BedMachine v3: Complete Bed Topography and Ocean
Bathymetry Mapping of Greenland From Multibeam Echo Sounding Combined With
Mass Conservation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 11051–11061, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074954, 2017.
Morlighem, M., Wood, M., Seroussi, H., Choi, Y., and Rignot, E.: Modeling the response of northwest Greenland to enhanced ocean thermal forcing and subglacial discharge, The Cryosphere, 13, 723–734, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-723-2019, 2019.
Morlighem, M.: IceBridge BedMachine Greenland, Version 4, NASA National Snow and Ice Data
Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA [data set],
https://doi.org/10.5067/VLJ5YXKCNGXO, 2021.
Mottram, R., B. Simonsen, S., Høyer Svendsen, S., Barletta, V. R.,
Sandberg Sørensen, L., Nagler, T., Wuite, J., Groh, A., Horwath, M.,
Rosier, J., Solgaard, A., Hvidberg, C. S., and Forsberg, R.: An Integrated
View of Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Changes Based on Models and Satellite
Observations, Remote Sensing, 11, 1407, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11121407, 2019.
Nias, I. J., Cornford, S. L., and Payne, A. J.: New Mass-Conserving Bedrock
Topography for Pine Island Glacier Impacts Simulated Decadal Rates of Mass
Loss, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 3173–3181, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL076493, 2018.
Nick, F. M., Veen, C. J. V. D., Vieli, A., and Benn, D. I.: A physically
based calving model applied to marine outlet glaciers and implications for
the glacier dynamics, J. Glaciol., 56, 781–794, https://doi.org/10.3189/002214310794457344, 2010.
Noël, B., van Kampenhout, L., Lenaerts, J. T. M., van de Berg, W. J.,
and van den Broeke, M. R.: A 21st Century Warming Threshold for Sustained
Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Loss, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48,
e2020GL090471, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL090471, 2021.
Nowicki, S., Goelzer, H., Seroussi, H., Payne, A. J., Lipscomb, W. H., Abe-Ouchi, A., Agosta, C., Alexander, P., Asay-Davis, X. S., Barthel, A., Bracegirdle, T. J., Cullather, R., Felikson, D., Fettweis, X., Gregory, J. M., Hattermann, T., Jourdain, N. C., Kuipers Munneke, P., Larour, E., Little, C. M., Morlighem, M., Nias, I., Shepherd, A., Simon, E., Slater, D., Smith, R. S., Straneo, F., Trusel, L. D., van den Broeke, M. R., and van de Wal, R.: Experimental protocol for sea level projections from ISMIP6 stand-alone ice sheet models, The Cryosphere, 14, 2331–2368, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2331-2020, 2020.
Nye, J. F.: The distribution of stress and velocity in glaciers and
ice-sheets, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. A Mat., 239, 113–133, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1957.0026, 1957.
O'Leary, M. and Christoffersen, P.: Calving on tidewater glaciers amplified by submarine frontal melting, The Cryosphere, 7, 119–128, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-119-2013, 2013.
OMG: OMG Airborne eXpendable Conductivity Temperature Depth (AXCTD)
Profiles, Ver. 1, PO. DAAC, CA, USA [data set],
https://doi.org/10.5067/OMGEV-AXCT1, 2019.
OMG: OMG Conductivity, Temperature and Depth (CTD) profiles, Ver. 1, PO. DAAC, CA, USA [data set],
https://doi.org/10.5067/OMGEV-CTDS1, 2020.
Pattyn, F.: A new three-dimensional higher-order thermomechanical ice sheet
model: Basic sensitivity, ice stream development, and ice flow across
subglacial lakes, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 108, 2382,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JB002329, 2003.
Payne, A. J., Nowicki, S., Abe-Ouchi, A., Agosta, C., Alexander, P.,
Albrecht, T., Asay-Davis, X., Aschwanden, A., Barthel, A., Bracegirdle, T.
J., Calov, R., Chambers, C., Choi, Y., Cullather, R., Cuzzone, J., Dumas,
C., Edwards, T. L., Felikson, D., Fettweis, X., Galton-Fenzi, B. K.,
Goelzer, H., Gladstone, R., Golledge, N. R., Gregory, J. M., Greve, R.,
Hattermann, T., Hoffman, M. J., Humbert, A., Huybrechts, P., Jourdain, N.
C., Kleiner, T., Munneke, P. K., Larour, E., Clec'h, S. L., Lee, V., Leguy,
G., Lipscomb, W. H., Little, C. M., Lowry, D. P., Morlighem, M., Nias, I.,
Pattyn, F., Pelle, T., Price, S. F., Quiquet, A., Reese, R., Rückamp,
M., Schlegel, N.-J., Seroussi, H., Shepherd, A., Simon, E., Slater, D.,
Smith, R. S., Straneo, F., Sun, S., Tarasov, L., Trusel, L. D., Breedam, J.
V., Wal, R. van de, Broeke, M. van den, Winkelmann, R., Zhao, C., Zhang, T.,
and Zwinger, T.: Future Sea Level Change Under Coupled Model Intercomparison
Project Phase 5 and Phase 6 Scenarios From the Greenland and Antarctic Ice
Sheets, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2020GL091741, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL091741, 2021.
Perego, M., Price, S., and Stadler, G.: Optimal initial conditions for
coupling ice sheet models to Earth system models, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 119, 1894–1917, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JF003181, 2014.
Petra, N., Martin, J., Stadler, G., and Ghattas, O.: A Computational
Framework for Infinite-Dimensional Bayesian Inverse Problems, Part II:
Stochastic Newton MCMC with Application to Ice Sheet Flow Inverse Problems,
SIAM J. Sci. Comput., 36, A1525–A1555, https://doi.org/10.1137/130934805, 2014.
Petrovic, J. J.: Review Mechanical properties of ice and snow, J.
Mater. Sci., 38, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021134128038, 2003.
Price, S. F., Payne, A. J., Howat, I. M., and Smith, B. E.: Committed sea-level rise for the next century from Greenland ice sheet dynamics during the past decade, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 108, 8978–8983, 2011.
Rignot, E., Xu, Y., Menemenlis, D., Mouginot, J., Scheuchl, B., Li, X.,
Morlighem, M., Seroussi, H., van den Broeke, M., Fenty, I., Cai, C., An, L.,
and de Fleurian, B.: Modeling of ocean-induced ice melt rates of five west
Greenland glaciers over the past two decades, Geophys. Res. Lett.,
43, 6374–6382, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL068784, 2016.
Rignot, E., An, L., Chauche, N., Morlighem, M., Jeong, S., Wood, M.,
Mouginot, J., Willis, J. K., Klaucke, I., Weinrebe, W., and Muenchow, A.:
Retreat of Humboldt Gletscher, North Greenland, Driven by Undercutting From
a Warmer Ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2020GL091342, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL091342, 2021.
Scambos, T. A., Hulbe, C., Fahnestock, M., and Bohlander, J.: The link
between climate warming and break-up of ice shelves in the Antarctic
Peninsula, J. Glaciol., 46, 516–530, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756500781833043, 2000.
Schoof, C.: The effect of cavitation on glacier sliding, Proc. R. Soc. A.,
461, 609–627, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2004.1350, 2005.
Schoof, C.: Ice sheet grounding line dynamics: Steady states, stability, and
hysteresis, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03S28, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000664, 2007.
Seroussi, H., Morlighem, M., Rignot, E., Khazendar, A., Larour, E., and
Mouginot, J.: Dependence of century-scale projections of the Greenland ice
sheet on its thermal regime, J. Glaciol., 59, 1024–1034,
https://doi.org/10.3189/2013JoG13J054, 2013.
Shapiro, N. M. and Ritzwoller, M. H.: Inferring surface heat flux
distributions guided by a global seismic model: particular application to
Antarctica, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 223, 213–224, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.011, 2004.
Slater, D. A., Felikson, D., Straneo, F., Goelzer, H., Little, C. M., Morlighem, M., Fettweis, X., and Nowicki, S.: Twenty-first century ocean forcing of the Greenland ice sheet for modelling of sea level contribution, The Cryosphere, 14, 985–1008, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-985-2020, 2020.
Slater, D. A., Benn, D. I., Cowton, T. R., Bassis, J. N., and Todd, J. A.:
Calving Multiplier Effect Controlled by Melt Undercut Geometry, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 126, e2021JF006191, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JF006191, 2021.
Smith-Johnsen, S., Schlegel, N.-J., de Fleurian, B., and Nisancioglu, K. H.:
Sensitivity of the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream to Geothermal Heat,
J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 125, e2019JF005252,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JF005252, 2020.
Sun, S., Pattyn, F., Simon, E. G., Albrecht, T., Cornford, S., Calov, R.,
Dumas, C., Gillet-Chaulet, F., Goelzer, H., Golledge, N. R., Greve, R.,
Hoffman, M. J., Humbert, A., Kazmierczak, E., Kleiner, T., Leguy, G. R.,
Lipscomb, W. H., Martin, D., Morlighem, M., Nowicki, S., Pollard, D., Price,
S., Quiquet, A., Seroussi, H., Schlemm, T., Sutter, J., van de Wal, R. S.
W., Winkelmann, R., and Zhang, T.: Antarctic ice sheet response to sudden
and sustained ice-shelf collapse (ABUMIP), J. Glaciol., 66, 891–904, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2020.67, 2020.
Tsai, V. C., Stewart, A. L., and Thompson, A. F.: Marine ice-sheet profiles
and stability under Coulomb basal conditions, J. Glaciol., 61,
205–215, https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J221, 2015.
Tulaczyk, S., Kamb, W. B., and Engelhardt, H. F.: Basal mechanics of Ice
Stream B, west Antarctica: 1. Till mechanics, J. Geophys. Res., 105,
463–481, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JB900329, 2000a.
Tulaczyk, S., Kamb, W. B., and Engelhardt, H. F.: Basal mechanics of Ice
Stream B, west Antarctica: 2. Undrained plastic bed model, J. Geophys. Res.,
105, 483–494, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JB900328, 2000b.
Vieli, A., Funk, M., and Blatter, H.: Flow dynamics of tidewater glaciers: a
numerical modelling approach, J. Glaciol., 47, 595–606, 2001.
Weertman, J.: On the Sliding of Glaciers, J. Glaciol., 3, 33–38,
https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000024709, 1957.
Weertman, J.: Stability of the Junction of an Ice Sheet and an Ice Shelf,
J. Glaciol., 13, 3–11, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000023327, 1974.
Wood, M., Rignot, E., Fenty, I., An, L., Bjørk, A., van den Broeke, M.,
Cai, C., Kane, E., Menemenlis, D., Millan, R., Morlighem, M., Mouginot, J.,
Noël, B., Scheuchl, B., Velicogna, I., Willis, J. K., and Zhang, H.:
Ocean forcing drives glacier retreat in Greenland, Sci. Adv., 7, eaba7282,
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba7282, 2021.
Zoet, L. K. and Iverson, N. R.: A slip law for glaciers on deformable beds,
Science, 368, 76–78, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz1183,
2020.
Short summary
We estimate that Humboldt Glacier, northern Greenland, will contribute 5.2–8.7 mm to global sea level in 2007–2100, using an ensemble of model simulations constrained by observations of glacier retreat and speedup. This is a significant fraction of the 40–140 mm from the whole Greenland Ice Sheet predicted by the recent ISMIP6 multi-model ensemble, suggesting that calibrating models against observed velocity changes could result in higher estimates of 21st century sea-level rise from Greenland.
We estimate that Humboldt Glacier, northern Greenland, will contribute 5.2–8.7 mm to global sea...