Articles | Volume 19, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-663-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-663-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
An examination of changes in autumn Eurasian snow cover and its relationship with the winter Arctic Oscillation using 20th Century Reanalysis version 3
Gareth J. Marshall
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, UK
Related authors
Xavier J. Levine, Ryan S. Williams, Gareth Marshall, Andrew Orr, Lise Seland Graff, Dörthe Handorf, Alexey Karpechko, Raphael Köhler, René R. Wijngaard, Nadine Johnston, Hanna Lee, Lars Nieradzik, and Priscilla A. Mooney
Earth Syst. Dynam., 15, 1161–1177, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-15-1161-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-15-1161-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
While the most recent climate projections agree that the Arctic is warming, differences remain in how much and in other climate variables such as precipitation. This presents a challenge for stakeholders who need to develop mitigation and adaptation strategies. We tackle this problem by using the storyline approach to generate four plausible and actionable realisations of end-of-century climate change for the Arctic, spanning its most likely range of variability.
Andrew Orr, Hua Lu, Patrick Martineau, Edwin P. Gerber, Gareth J. Marshall, and Thomas J. Bracegirdle
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7451–7472, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7451-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7451-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Reanalysis datasets combine observations and weather forecast simulations to create our best estimate of the state of the atmosphere and are important for climate monitoring. Differences in the technical details of these products mean that they may give different results. This study therefore examined how changes associated with the so-called Antarctic ozone hole are represented, which is one of the most important climate changes in recent decades, and showed that they were broadly consistent.
Xavier J. Levine, Ryan S. Williams, Gareth Marshall, Andrew Orr, Lise Seland Graff, Dörthe Handorf, Alexey Karpechko, Raphael Köhler, René R. Wijngaard, Nadine Johnston, Hanna Lee, Lars Nieradzik, and Priscilla A. Mooney
Earth Syst. Dynam., 15, 1161–1177, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-15-1161-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-15-1161-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
While the most recent climate projections agree that the Arctic is warming, differences remain in how much and in other climate variables such as precipitation. This presents a challenge for stakeholders who need to develop mitigation and adaptation strategies. We tackle this problem by using the storyline approach to generate four plausible and actionable realisations of end-of-century climate change for the Arctic, spanning its most likely range of variability.
Andrew Orr, Hua Lu, Patrick Martineau, Edwin P. Gerber, Gareth J. Marshall, and Thomas J. Bracegirdle
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7451–7472, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7451-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7451-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Reanalysis datasets combine observations and weather forecast simulations to create our best estimate of the state of the atmosphere and are important for climate monitoring. Differences in the technical details of these products mean that they may give different results. This study therefore examined how changes associated with the so-called Antarctic ozone hole are represented, which is one of the most important climate changes in recent decades, and showed that they were broadly consistent.
Cited articles
Allchin, M. I. and Déry, S. J.: The climatological context of trends in the onset of Northerrn Hemisphere seasonal snow cover, 1972–2017, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 125, e2019JD032367, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD032367, 2020.
Allen, R. J. and Zender, C. S.: Forcing of the Arctic Oscillation by Eurasian snow cover, J. Climate, 24, 6528–6539, https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JCLI4157.1, 2011.
Armstrong, R.: Historical Soviet Daily Snow Depth (HSDSD), 1881–1995 (G01092, Version 2), Boulder, Colorado USA, National Snow and Ice Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.7265/N5JW8BS3, 2001.
Bayazit, M. and Önöz, B.: To prewhiten or not to prewhiten in trend analysis?, Hydrol. Sci. J., 52, 611–624, https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.52.4.611, 2007.
Bednorz, E. and Wibig, J.: Spatial distribution and synoptic conditions of snow accumulation in the Russian Arctic, Polar Res., 35, 25916, https://doi.org/10.3402/polar.v35.25916, 2016.
Bednorz, E. and Wibig, J.: Circulation patterns governing October snowfalls in southern Siberia, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 128, 129–139, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-015-1696-3, 2017.
Bender, E., Lehning, M., and Fiddes, J.: Changes in climatology, snow cover and ground temperatures at high alpine locations, Front. Earth Sci., 8, 100, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00100, 2020.
Brown, R. D. and Derksen, C.: Is Eurasian October snow cover extent increasing?, Enviorn. Res. Lett., 8, 024006, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024006, 2013.
Bulygina, O. N., Razuvaev, V. N., and Korshunova, N. N.: Changes in snow cover over Northern Eurasia in the last few decades, Environ. Res. Lett., 4, 045026, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045026, 2009.
Bulygina, O. N., Groisman, P. Y., Razuvaev, V. N., and Korshunova, N. N.: Changes in snow cover characteristics over Northern Eurasia since 1966, Environ. Res. Lett., 6, 045204, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045204, 2011.
Callaghan, T. V., Johansson, M., Brown, R. D., Groisman, P. Y., Labba, N., Radionov, V., Barry, R. G., Bulygina, O. N., Essery, R. L. H., Frolov, D. M., Golubev, V. N., Grenfell, T. C., Petrushina, M. N., Razuvaev, V. N., Robinson, D. A., Romanov, P., Shindell, D., Shmakin, A. B., Sokratov, S. A., Warren, S., and Yang, D.: The changing face of Arctic snow cover: a synthesis of observed and projected changes, Ambio, 40, 17–31, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-011-0212-y, 2011.
Clark, M. P., Serreze, M. C., and Robinson, D. A.: Atmospheric controls on Eurasian snow extent, Int. J. Climatol., 19, 27–40, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(199901)19:1<27::AID-JOC346>3.0.CO;2-N, 1999.
Clelland, A. A., Marshall, G. J., and Baxter, R.: Evaluating the performance of key ERA-Interim, ERA5 and ERA5-Land climate variables across Siberia, Int. J. Climatol., 44, 2318–2342, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.8456, 2024.
Climate Data Center: Northern Hemisphere teleconnection patterns, NOAA [data set], https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/data/teledoc/telecontents.shtml, last access: 24 September 2024.
Cohen, J. and Entekhabi, D.: Eurasian snow cover variability and Northern Hemisphere climate predictability, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 345–348, 1999.
Cohen, J. and Jones, J.: A new index for more accurate winter predictions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L21701, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049626, 2011.
Cohen, J., Barlow, M., Kushner, P. J., and Saito, K.: Stratosphere-troposphere coupling and links with Eurasian land surface variability, J. Climate, 20, 5335–5343, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JCLI1725.1, 2007.
Cohen, J., Foster, J., Barlow, M., Saito, K., and Jones, J.: Winter 2009–2010: a case study of an extreme Arctic Oscillation event, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L17707, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044256, 2010.
Cohen, J. L., Furtado, J. C., Barlow, M. A., Alexeev, V. A., and Cherry, J. E.: Arctic warming, increasing snow cover and widespread boreal winter cooling, Environ. Res. Lett., 7, 014007, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/1/014007, 2012.
Cohen, J., Screen, J. A., Furtado, J. C., Barlow, M., Whittleston, D., Coumou, D., Francis, J., Dethloff, K., Entekhabi, D., Overland, J., and Jones, J.: Recent Arctic amplification and extreme mid-latitude weather, Nat. Geosci., 7, 627–637, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO2234, 2014.
Compo, G. P., Whitaker, J. S., Sardeshmukh, P. D., Matsui, N., Allan, R. J., Yin, X., Gleason, B. E., Vose, R. S., Rutledge, G., Bessemoulin, P., Brönnimann, S., Brunet, M., Crouthamel, R. I., Grant, A. N., Groisman, P. Y., Jones, P. D., Kruk, M. C., Kruger, A. C., Marshall, G. J., Maugeri, M., Mok, H. Y., Nordli, Ø, Ross, T. F., Trigo, R. M., Wang, X. L., Woodruff, S. D., and Worley, S. J.: The Twentieth Century Reanalysis project, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 137, 1–28, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.776, 2011.
Dai, Y. and Tan, B.: Two types of the western Pacific pattern, their climate impacts, and the ENSO modulations, J. Climate, 32, 823–841, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0618.1, 2019.
Delhaye, S., Massonnet, F., Fichefet, T., Msadek, R., Terray, L., and Screen, J.: Dominant role of early winter Barents-Kara sea ice extent anomalies in subsequent atmospheric circulation changes in CMIP6 models, Clim. Dynam., 62, 2755–2778, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-023-06904-6, 2024.
Ding, Q., Schweigher, A., L'Heureux, M., Battisti, D. S., Po-Chedley, S., Johnson, N. C., Blanchard-Wrigglesworth, E., Harnos, K., Zhang, Q., Eastman, R., and Steig, E. J.: Influence of high-latitude atmospheric circulation changes on summertime Arctic sea ice, Nat. Clim. Change, 7, 289–295, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3241, 2017.
Douville, H., Peings, Y., and Saint-Martin, D.: Snow-(N)AO relationship revisited over the whole twentieth century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 569–577, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL071584, 2016.
Estilow, T. W., Young, A. H., and Robinson, D. A.: A long-term Northern Hemisphere snow cover extent data record for climate studies and monitoring, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 7, 137–142, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-7-137-2015, 2015.
Furtado, J. C., Cohen, J. L., Butler, A. H., Riddle, E. E., and Kumar, A.: Eurasian snow cover variability and links to winter climate in the CMIP5 models, Clim. Dynam., 45, 2591–2605, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2494-4, 2015.
Garfinkel, C. I., Hartmann, D. L., and Sassi, F.: Tropospheric precursors of anomalous Northern Hemisphere stratospheric polar vortices, J. Climate, 23, 3282–3299, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3010.1, 2010.
Gastineau, G., Garćia-Serrano, J., and Frankignoul, C.: The influence of autumnal Eurasian snow cover on climate and its link with Arctic sea ice cover, J. Climate, 30, 7599–7619, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0623.1, 2017.
Han, S. and Sun, J.: Impacts of autumnal Eurasian snow cover on predominant modes of boreal winter surface air temperature over Eurasia, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 123, 10076–10091, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD028443, 2018.
Handorf, D., Jaise, R., Dethloff, K., Rinke, A., and Cohen, J.: Impacts of Arctic sea ice and continental snow cover changes on atmospheric winter teleconnections, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 2367–2377, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063203, 2015.
Henderson, G. R., Peings, Y., Furtado, J. C., and Kushner, P. J.: Snow-atmosphere coupling in the Northern Hemisphere, Nat. Clim. Change, 9, 954–963, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0295-6, 2018.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., De Chiara, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., de Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Biavati, G., Horányi, A., Muñoz Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Rozum, I., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Dee, D., and Thépaut, J.-N.: ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present, Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47, 2023.
Hori, M., Sugiura, K., Kobayashi, K., Aoki, T., Tanikawa, T., Kuchiki, K., Niwano, M., and Enomoto, H.: A 38-year (1978–2015) Northern Hemisphere daily snow cover extent product derived using consistent objective criteria from satellite-borne optical sensors, Rem. Sens. Environ., 191, 402–418, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.01.023, 2017.
Kitaev, L., Kislov, A., Krenke, A., Razuvaev, V., Martuganov, R., and Konstantinov, I.: The snow cover characteristics of northern Eurasia and their relationship to climatic parameters, Boreal Environ. Res., 7, 437–445, 2002.
Linkin, M. E. and Nigam, S.: The North Pacific Oscillation-West Pacific teleconnection pattern: mature-phase structure and winter impacts, J. Climate, 21, 1979–1997, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JCLI2048.1, 2008.
Marshall, G. J.: Decadal variability in the impact of atmospheric circulation patterns on the winter climate of northern Russia, J. Climate, 34, 1005–1021, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0566.1, 2021.
Met Office: Met Office Integrated Data Archive System (MIDAS) Land and Marine Surface Stations Data (1853–current), NCAS British Atmospheric Data Centre [data set], https://cataologue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/220a65615218d5c9cc9e4785a3234bd0 (last access: 21 February 2024), 2012.
Mokhov, I. I. and Parfenova, M. M.: Changes in the snow cover extent in Eurasia from satellite data in relation to hemispheric and regional temperature changes, Doklady Earth Sci., 501, 78–85, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X21110106, 2021.
Mortimer, C., Mudryk, L., Derksen, C., Luojus, K., Brown, R., Kelly, R., and Tedesco, M.: Evaluation of long-term Northern Hemisphere snow water equivalent products, The Cryosphere, 14, 1579–1594, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1579-2020, 2020.
Mudryk, L. R., Kushner, P. J., Derksen, C., and Thackeray, C.: Snow cover response to temperature in observational and climate model ensembles, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 919–926, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL071789, 2017.
Nishii, K., Nakamura, H., and Orsolini, Y. J.: Cooling of the wintertime Arctic stratosphere induced by the western Pacific teleconnection pattern, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L13805, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL043551, 2010.
NOAA Physical Sciences Laboratory: NOAA/CIRES/DOE 20th Century Reanalysis (V3), https://www.psl.noaa.gov/data/gridded/data.20thC_ReanV3.html (last access: 27 November 2024), 2024.
Ogimet: OGIMET, Ogimet [data set], https://www.ogimet.com/gsynres.phtml.en, last access: 30 May 2023.
Orsolini, Y. J., Senan, R., Vitart, F., Balsamo, G., Weisheimer, A., and Doblas-Reyes, F. J.: Influence of the Eurasian snow on the negative North Atlantic Oscillation in subseasonal forecasts of the cold winter 2009/2010, Clim. Dynam., 47, 1325–1334, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2903-8, 2016.
Overland, J. E., Dethloff, K., Francis, J. A., Hall, R. J., Hanna, E., Kim, S.-J., Screen, J. A., Shepherd, T. G., and Vihma, T.: Nonlinear response of mid-latitude weather to the changing Arctic, Nat. Clim. Change, 6, 992–999, https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE3121, 2016.
Peings, Y.: Ural blocking as a driver of early-winter stratospheric warmings, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 5460–5468, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL082097, 2019.
Peings, Y., Brun, E., Mauvais, V., and Douville, H.: How stationary is the relationship between Siberian snow and Arctic Oscillation over the 20th century?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 183–188, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL054083, 2013.
Peings, Y., Douville, H., Colin, J., Saint Martin, D., and Magnusdottir, G.: Snow-(N)AO teleconnection and its modulation by the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation, J. Climate, 30, 10211–10235, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0041.1, 2017.
Peings, Y., Labe, Z. M., and Magnusdottir, G.: Are 100 ensemble members enough to capture the remote atmospheric response to a +2° C Arctic sea ice loss? J. Climate, 34, 3751–3769, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0613.1, 2021.
Peng, S., Piao, S., Ciais, P., Friedlingstein, P., Zhou, L., and Wang, T.: Change in snow phenology and its potential feedback to temperature in the Northern Hemisphere over the last three decades, Environ. Res. Lett., 8, 014008, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/014008, 2013.
Rantanen, M., Karpechko, A. Y., Lipponen, A., Nordling, K., Hyvärinen, O., Ruosteenoja, K., Vihmom, T., and Laaksonen, A.: The Arctic has warmed nearly four time faster than the globe since 1979, Commun. Earth Environ., 3, 168, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3, 2022.
Sen, P. K.: Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall's Tau, J. A. Stat. Assoc., 63, 1379–1389, https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934, 1968.
Silvinski, L. C., Compo, G. P., Whitaker, J. S., Sardeshmukh, P. D., Giese, B. S., McColl, C., Allan, R., Yin, X., Vose, R., Titchner, H., Kennedy, J., Spencer, L. J., Brönnimann, S., Brunet, M., Camuffo, D., Cornes R., Cram, T. A., Crouthamel, R., Domínguez-Castro, F., Freeman, J. E., Gergis, J., Hawkins, E., Jones, P. D., Jourdain, S.. Kaplan, A., Kubota, H., Le Blancq, F., Lee, T.-C., Lorrey, A., Luterbacher, J., Maugeri, M., Mock, C. J., Moore, G. W. K., Przybylak, R., Pudmenzky, C., Reason, C., Slonosky, V. C., Smith, C. A., Tinz, B., Trewin, B., Valente, M. A., Wang, X. L., Wilkinson, C., Wood, K., and Wyszyński, P.: Towards a more reliable historical reanalysis: improvements for version 3 of the Twentieth Century Reanalysis system, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 145, 2876–2908, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3598, 2019.
Tao, L., Fang, J., Yang, X.-Q., Cai, D., and Wang, Y.: Role of North Atlantic tripole SST in mid-winter reversal of NAO. Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL103502, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL103502, 2023.
Thompson, D. W. J. and Wallace, J. M.: The Arctic Oscillation signature in the wintertime geopotential height and temperature fields, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1297–1300, https://doi.org/10.1029/98GL00950, 1998.
Tyrrell, N. T., Karpechko, A. Y., and Rast, S.: Siberian snow forcing in a dynamically bias-corrected model, J. Climate, 33, 10455–10467, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0966.1, 2020.
Urraca, R. and Gobron, N.: Temporal stability of long-term satellite and reanalysis products to monitor snow cover trends, The Cryosphere, 17, 1023–1052, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1023-2023, 2023.
Wang, C., Graham, R. M., Wang, K., Gerland, S., and Granskog, M. A.: Comparison of ERA5 and ERA-Interim near-surface air temperature, snowfall and precipitation over Arctic sea ice: effects on sea ice thermodynamics and evolution, The Cryosphere, 13, 1661–1679, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1661-2019, 2019.
Wegmann, M., Orsolini, Y., Dutra, E., Bulygina, O., Sterin, A., and Brönnimann, S.: Eurasian snow depth in long-term climate reanalyses, The Cryosphere, 11, 923–935, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-923-2017, 2017.
Wegmann, M., Rohrer, M., Santolaria-Otín, M., and Lohmann, G.: Eurasian autumn snow link to winter North Atlantic Oscillation is strongest for Arctic warming periods, Earth Syst. Dynam., 11, 509–524, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-11-509-2020, 2020.
Wegmann, M., Orsolini, Y., Weisheimer, A., van den Hurk, B., and Lohmann, G.: Impact of Eurasian autumn snow on the winter North Atlantic Oscillation in seasonal forecasts of the 20th century, Weather Clim. Dynam., 2, 1245–1261, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-1245-2021, 2021.
Wilks, D.: “The stippling shows statistically significant grid points”: How research results are routinely overstated. overinterpreted and what to do about it, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 97, 2263–2273, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00267.1, 2016.
Yang, H. and Fan, K.: Strengthened impacts of November snow cover over Siberia on the out-of-phase change in the Siberian High between December and January since 2000 and implication for intraseasonal climate prediction, Front. Earth Sci., 9, 748484, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.748484, 2021.
Ye, H.: Increases in snow season length due to earlier first snow and later last snow dates over north central and northwest Asia during 1937–94, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 551–554, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GL012036, 2001.
Ye, K. and Wu, R.: Autumn snow cover variability over northern Eurasia and roles of atmospheric circulation, Adv. Atmos, Sci., 34, 847–858, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-017-6287-z, 2017.
Yu, L., Sui, C., Lenschow, D. H., and Zhou, M.: The relationship between wintertime extreme temperature events north of 60° N and large-scale atmospheric circulations, Int. J. Climatol., 37, 597–911, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5024, 2017.
Zhang, T., Feng, Y., and Chen, H.: Revealing the formation of the dipole mode of Eurasian snow cover variability during late autumn, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 128, 22022JD038233, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD038233, 2023.
Zhou, W., Leung, L. R., and Lu, J.: Steady threefold Arctic amplification of externally forced warming masked by natural variability, Nat. Geosci., 17, 508–515, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01441-1, 2024.
Short summary
Eurasian autumn snow cover (SC) can influence Northern Hemisphere weather in the following winter by affecting the Arctic Oscillation (AO) mode of atmospheric variability. Using data back to 1836, we show that there have been significant decreases in October and November SC. For the first time, we describe a robust relationship between September SC in northeastern Eurasia and the AO. In addition, the longer dataset reveals the temporal variability in previously identified SC–AO relationships.
Eurasian autumn snow cover (SC) can influence Northern Hemisphere weather in the following...