Articles | Volume 7, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1109-2013
© Author(s) 2013. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1109-2013
© Author(s) 2013. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
18 Jul 2013
Research article |
| 18 Jul 2013
Surface motion of active rock glaciers in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA: inventory and a case study using InSAR
Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
C. I. Millar
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Albany, CA, USA
R. D. Westfall
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Albany, CA, USA
H. A. Zebker
Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Related authors
Kathrin Maier, Zhuoxuan Xia, Lin Liu, Mark J. Lara, Jurjen van der Sluijs, Philipp Bernhard, and Irena Hajnsek
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2187, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2187, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
Our study explores how thawing permafrost on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau triggers landslides, mobilising stored carbon. Using satellite data from 2011 to 2020, we measured soil erosion, ice loss, and carbon mobilisation. While current impacts are modest, increasing landslide activity suggests future significance. This research underscores the need to understand permafrost thaw's role in carbon dynamics and climate change.
Zhangyu Sun, Yan Hu, Adina Racoviteanu, Lin Liu, Stephan Harrison, Xiaowen Wang, Jiaxin Cai, Xin Guo, Yujun He, and Hailun Yuan
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 5703–5721, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5703-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5703-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We propose a new dataset, TPRoGI (v1.0), encompassing rock glaciers in the entire Tibetan Plateau. We used a neural network, DeepLabv3+, and images from Planet Basemaps. The inventory identified 44 273 rock glaciers, covering 6 000 km2, mainly at elevations of 4000 to 5500 m a.s.l. The dataset, with details on distribution and characteristics, aids in understanding permafrost distribution, mountain hydrology, and climate impacts in High Mountain Asia, filling a knowledge gap.
Yan Hu, Stephan Harrison, Lin Liu, and Joanne Laura Wood
The Cryosphere, 17, 2305–2321, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2305-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2305-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers are considered to be important freshwater reservoirs in the future climate. However, the amount of ice stored in rock glaciers is poorly quantified. Here we developed an empirical model to estimate ice content in rock the glaciers in the Khumbu and Lhotse valleys, Nepal. The modelling results confirmed the hydrological importance of rock glaciers in the study area. The developed approach shows promise in being applied to permafrost regions to assess water storage of rock glaciers.
Zhuoxuan Xia, Lingcao Huang, Chengyan Fan, Shichao Jia, Zhanjun Lin, Lin Liu, Jing Luo, Fujun Niu, and Tingjun Zhang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 3875–3887, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3875-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3875-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Retrogressive thaw slumps are slope failures resulting from abrupt permafrost thaw, and are widely distributed along the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor. The potential damage to infrastructure and carbon emission of thaw slumps motivated us to obtain an inventory of thaw slumps. We used a semi-automatic method to map 875 thaw slumps, filling the knowledge gap of thaw slump locations and providing key benchmarks for analysing the distribution features and quantifying spatio-temporal changes.
Xiaowen Wang, Lin Liu, Yan Hu, Tonghua Wu, Lin Zhao, Qiao Liu, Rui Zhang, Bo Zhang, and Guoxiang Liu
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2791–2810, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2791-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2791-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We characterized the multi-decadal geomorphic changes of a low-angle valley glacier in the East Kunlun Mountains and assessed the detachment hazard influence. The observations reveal a slow surge-like dynamic pattern of the glacier tongue. The maximum runout distances of two endmember avalanche scenarios were presented. This study provides a reference to evaluate the runout hazards of low-angle mountain glaciers prone to detachment.
Jiahua Zhang, Lin Liu, Lei Su, and Tao Che
The Cryosphere, 15, 3021–3033, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3021-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3021-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We improve the commonly used GPS-IR algorithm for estimating surface soil moisture in permafrost areas, which does not consider the bias introduced by seasonal surface vertical movement. We propose a three-in-one framework to integrate the GPS-IR observations of surface elevation changes, soil moisture, and snow depth at one site and illustrate it by using a GPS site in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. This study is the first to use GPS-IR to measure environmental variables in the Tibetan Plateau.
Jiahua Zhang, Lin Liu, and Yufeng Hu
The Cryosphere, 14, 1875–1888, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1875-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1875-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Ground surface in permafrost areas undergoes uplift and subsides seasonally due to freezing–thawing active layer. Surface elevation change serves as an indicator of frozen-ground dynamics. In this study, we identify 12 GPS stations across the Canadian Arctic, which are useful for measuring elevation changes by using reflected GPS signals. Measurements span from several years to over a decade and at daily intervals and help to reveal frozen ground dynamics at various temporal and spatial scales.
Enze Zhang, Lin Liu, and Lingcao Huang
The Cryosphere, 13, 1729–1741, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1729-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1729-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Conventionally, calving front positions have been manually delineated from remote sensing images. We design a novel method to automatically delineate the calving front positions of Jakobshavn Isbræ based on deep learning, the first of this kind for Greenland outlet glaciers. We generate high-temporal-resolution (about two measurements every month) calving fronts, demonstrating our methodology can be applied to many other tidewater glaciers through this successful case study on Jakobshavn Isbræ.
Jiangjun Ran, Miren Vizcaino, Pavel Ditmar, Michiel R. van den Broeke, Twila Moon, Christian R. Steger, Ellyn M. Enderlin, Bert Wouters, Brice Noël, Catharina H. Reijmer, Roland Klees, Min Zhong, Lin Liu, and Xavier Fettweis
The Cryosphere, 12, 2981–2999, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2981-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2981-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
To accurately predict future sea level rise, the mechanisms driving the observed mass loss must be better understood. Here, we combine data from the satellite gravimetry, surface mass balance, and ice discharge to analyze the mass budget of Greenland at various temporal scales. This study, for the first time, suggests the existence of a substantial meltwater storage during summer, with a peak value of 80–120 Gt in July. We highlight its importance for understanding ice sheet mass variability
Lin Liu and Kristine M. Larson
The Cryosphere, 12, 477–489, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-477-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-477-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate the use of reflected GPS signals to measure elevation changes over a permafrost area in northern Alaska. For the first time, we construct a daily-sampled time series of elevation changes over 12 summers. Our results show regular thaw subsidence within each summer and a secular subsidence trend of 0.3 cm per year. This method promises a new way to utilize GPS data in cold regions for studying frozen ground consistently and sustainably over a long time.
Xiaowen Wang, Lin Liu, Lin Zhao, Tonghua Wu, Zhongqin Li, and Guoxiang Liu
The Cryosphere, 11, 997–1014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-997-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-997-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers are abundant in high mountains in western China but have been ignored for 20 years. We used a new remote-sensing-based method to map active rock glaciers in the Chinese part of the Tien Shan and compiled an inventory of 261 active rock glaciers and included quantitative information about their locations, geomorphic parameters, and downslope velocities. Our dataset suggests that the lower limit of permafrost there is 2500–2800 m.
L. Liu, K. Schaefer, A. Gusmeroli, G. Grosse, B. M. Jones, T. Zhang, A. D. Parsekian, and H. A. Zebker
The Cryosphere, 8, 815–826, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-815-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-815-2014, 2014
Kathrin Maier, Zhuoxuan Xia, Lin Liu, Mark J. Lara, Jurjen van der Sluijs, Philipp Bernhard, and Irena Hajnsek
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2187, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2187, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
Our study explores how thawing permafrost on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau triggers landslides, mobilising stored carbon. Using satellite data from 2011 to 2020, we measured soil erosion, ice loss, and carbon mobilisation. While current impacts are modest, increasing landslide activity suggests future significance. This research underscores the need to understand permafrost thaw's role in carbon dynamics and climate change.
Zhangyu Sun, Yan Hu, Adina Racoviteanu, Lin Liu, Stephan Harrison, Xiaowen Wang, Jiaxin Cai, Xin Guo, Yujun He, and Hailun Yuan
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 5703–5721, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5703-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5703-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We propose a new dataset, TPRoGI (v1.0), encompassing rock glaciers in the entire Tibetan Plateau. We used a neural network, DeepLabv3+, and images from Planet Basemaps. The inventory identified 44 273 rock glaciers, covering 6 000 km2, mainly at elevations of 4000 to 5500 m a.s.l. The dataset, with details on distribution and characteristics, aids in understanding permafrost distribution, mountain hydrology, and climate impacts in High Mountain Asia, filling a knowledge gap.
Charles E. Miller, Peter C. Griffith, Elizabeth Hoy, Naiara S. Pinto, Yunling Lou, Scott Hensley, Bruce D. Chapman, Jennifer Baltzer, Kazem Bakian-Dogaheh, W. Robert Bolton, Laura Bourgeau-Chavez, Richard H. Chen, Byung-Hun Choe, Leah K. Clayton, Thomas A. Douglas, Nancy French, Jean E. Holloway, Gang Hong, Lingcao Huang, Go Iwahana, Liza Jenkins, John S. Kimball, Tatiana Loboda, Michelle Mack, Philip Marsh, Roger J. Michaelides, Mahta Moghaddam, Andrew Parsekian, Kevin Schaefer, Paul R. Siqueira, Debjani Singh, Alireza Tabatabaeenejad, Merritt Turetsky, Ridha Touzi, Elizabeth Wig, Cathy J. Wilson, Paul Wilson, Stan D. Wullschleger, Yonghong Yi, Howard A. Zebker, Yu Zhang, Yuhuan Zhao, and Scott J. Goetz
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 2605–2624, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2605-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2605-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
NASA’s Arctic Boreal Vulnerability Experiment (ABoVE) conducted airborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) surveys of over 120 000 km2 in Alaska and northwestern Canada during 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2022. This paper summarizes those results and provides links to details on ~ 80 individual flight lines. This paper is presented as a guide to enable interested readers to fully explore the ABoVE L- and P-band SAR data.
Yan Hu, Stephan Harrison, Lin Liu, and Joanne Laura Wood
The Cryosphere, 17, 2305–2321, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2305-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2305-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers are considered to be important freshwater reservoirs in the future climate. However, the amount of ice stored in rock glaciers is poorly quantified. Here we developed an empirical model to estimate ice content in rock the glaciers in the Khumbu and Lhotse valleys, Nepal. The modelling results confirmed the hydrological importance of rock glaciers in the study area. The developed approach shows promise in being applied to permafrost regions to assess water storage of rock glaciers.
Zhuoxuan Xia, Lingcao Huang, Chengyan Fan, Shichao Jia, Zhanjun Lin, Lin Liu, Jing Luo, Fujun Niu, and Tingjun Zhang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 3875–3887, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3875-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3875-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Retrogressive thaw slumps are slope failures resulting from abrupt permafrost thaw, and are widely distributed along the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor. The potential damage to infrastructure and carbon emission of thaw slumps motivated us to obtain an inventory of thaw slumps. We used a semi-automatic method to map 875 thaw slumps, filling the knowledge gap of thaw slump locations and providing key benchmarks for analysing the distribution features and quantifying spatio-temporal changes.
Xiaowen Wang, Lin Liu, Yan Hu, Tonghua Wu, Lin Zhao, Qiao Liu, Rui Zhang, Bo Zhang, and Guoxiang Liu
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2791–2810, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2791-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2791-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We characterized the multi-decadal geomorphic changes of a low-angle valley glacier in the East Kunlun Mountains and assessed the detachment hazard influence. The observations reveal a slow surge-like dynamic pattern of the glacier tongue. The maximum runout distances of two endmember avalanche scenarios were presented. This study provides a reference to evaluate the runout hazards of low-angle mountain glaciers prone to detachment.
Jiahua Zhang, Lin Liu, Lei Su, and Tao Che
The Cryosphere, 15, 3021–3033, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3021-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3021-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We improve the commonly used GPS-IR algorithm for estimating surface soil moisture in permafrost areas, which does not consider the bias introduced by seasonal surface vertical movement. We propose a three-in-one framework to integrate the GPS-IR observations of surface elevation changes, soil moisture, and snow depth at one site and illustrate it by using a GPS site in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. This study is the first to use GPS-IR to measure environmental variables in the Tibetan Plateau.
Jiahua Zhang, Lin Liu, and Yufeng Hu
The Cryosphere, 14, 1875–1888, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1875-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1875-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Ground surface in permafrost areas undergoes uplift and subsides seasonally due to freezing–thawing active layer. Surface elevation change serves as an indicator of frozen-ground dynamics. In this study, we identify 12 GPS stations across the Canadian Arctic, which are useful for measuring elevation changes by using reflected GPS signals. Measurements span from several years to over a decade and at daily intervals and help to reveal frozen ground dynamics at various temporal and spatial scales.
Enze Zhang, Lin Liu, and Lingcao Huang
The Cryosphere, 13, 1729–1741, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1729-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1729-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Conventionally, calving front positions have been manually delineated from remote sensing images. We design a novel method to automatically delineate the calving front positions of Jakobshavn Isbræ based on deep learning, the first of this kind for Greenland outlet glaciers. We generate high-temporal-resolution (about two measurements every month) calving fronts, demonstrating our methodology can be applied to many other tidewater glaciers through this successful case study on Jakobshavn Isbræ.
Jiangjun Ran, Miren Vizcaino, Pavel Ditmar, Michiel R. van den Broeke, Twila Moon, Christian R. Steger, Ellyn M. Enderlin, Bert Wouters, Brice Noël, Catharina H. Reijmer, Roland Klees, Min Zhong, Lin Liu, and Xavier Fettweis
The Cryosphere, 12, 2981–2999, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2981-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2981-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
To accurately predict future sea level rise, the mechanisms driving the observed mass loss must be better understood. Here, we combine data from the satellite gravimetry, surface mass balance, and ice discharge to analyze the mass budget of Greenland at various temporal scales. This study, for the first time, suggests the existence of a substantial meltwater storage during summer, with a peak value of 80–120 Gt in July. We highlight its importance for understanding ice sheet mass variability
Lin Liu and Kristine M. Larson
The Cryosphere, 12, 477–489, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-477-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-477-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate the use of reflected GPS signals to measure elevation changes over a permafrost area in northern Alaska. For the first time, we construct a daily-sampled time series of elevation changes over 12 summers. Our results show regular thaw subsidence within each summer and a secular subsidence trend of 0.3 cm per year. This method promises a new way to utilize GPS data in cold regions for studying frozen ground consistently and sustainably over a long time.
Xiaowen Wang, Lin Liu, Lin Zhao, Tonghua Wu, Zhongqin Li, and Guoxiang Liu
The Cryosphere, 11, 997–1014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-997-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-997-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers are abundant in high mountains in western China but have been ignored for 20 years. We used a new remote-sensing-based method to map active rock glaciers in the Chinese part of the Tien Shan and compiled an inventory of 261 active rock glaciers and included quantitative information about their locations, geomorphic parameters, and downslope velocities. Our dataset suggests that the lower limit of permafrost there is 2500–2800 m.
L. Liu, K. Schaefer, A. Gusmeroli, G. Grosse, B. M. Jones, T. Zhang, A. D. Parsekian, and H. A. Zebker
The Cryosphere, 8, 815–826, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-815-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-815-2014, 2014
Related subject area
Frozen Ground
High-resolution 4D electrical resistivity tomography and below-ground point sensor monitoring of High Arctic deglaciated sediments capture zero-curtain effects, freeze–thaw transitions, and mid-winter thawing
Spectral induced polarization survey for the estimation of hydrogeological parameters in an active rock glacier
Quantifying permafrost ground ice contents in the Tien Shan and Pamir (Central Asia): A Petrophysical Joint Inversion approach using the Geometric Mean model
Thermal State of Permafrost in the Central Andes (27° S–34° S)
Effect of surficial geology mapping scale on modelled ground ice in Canadian Shield terrain
Model-based analysis of solute transport and potential carbon mineralization in a permafrost catchment under seasonal variability and climate change
InSAR-measured permafrost degradation of palsa peatlands in northern Sweden
The evolution of Arctic permafrost over the last 3 centuries from ensemble simulations with the CryoGridLite permafrost model
Permafrost saline water and Early to mid-Holocene permafrost aggradation in Svalbard
Environmental spaces for palsas and peat plateaus are disappearing at a circumpolar scale
Post-Little Ice Age rock wall permafrost evolution in Norway
Modelling rock glacier ice content based on InSAR-derived velocity, Khumbu and Lhotse valleys, Nepal
The temperature-dependent shear strength of ice-filled joints in rock mass considering the effect of joint roughness, opening and shear rates
Significant underestimation of peatland permafrost along the Labrador Sea coastline in northern Canada
Estimation of stream water components and residence time in a permafrost catchment in the central Tibetan Plateau using long-term water stable isotopic data
Brief communication: Improving ERA5-Land soil temperature in permafrost regions using an optimized multi-layer snow scheme
Towards accurate quantification of ice content in permafrost of the Central Andes – Part 2: An upscaling strategy of geophysical measurements to the catchment scale at two study sites
Long-term analysis of cryoseismic events and associated ground thermal stress in Adventdalen, Svalbard
Seismic physics-based characterization of permafrost sites using surface waves
Three in one: GPS-IR measurements of ground surface elevation changes, soil moisture, and snow depth at a permafrost site in the northeastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau
Surface temperatures and their influence on the permafrost thermal regime in high-Arctic rock walls on Svalbard
Consequences of permafrost degradation for Arctic infrastructure – bridging the model gap between regional and engineering scales
Passive seismic recording of cryoseisms in Adventdalen, Svalbard
Projecting circum-Arctic excess-ground-ice melt with a sub-grid representation in the Community Land Model
Ground ice, organic carbon and soluble cations in tundra permafrost soils and sediments near a Laurentide ice divide in the Slave Geological Province, Northwest Territories, Canada
The ERA5-Land soil temperature bias in permafrost regions
Brief Communication: The reliability of gas extraction techniques for analysing CH4 and N2O compositions in gas trapped in permafrost ice wedges
Geochemical signatures of pingo ice and its origin in Grøndalen, west Spitsbergen
Mountain permafrost degradation documented through a network of permanent electrical resistivity tomography sites
Permafrost variability over the Northern Hemisphere based on the MERRA-2 reanalysis
Distinguishing ice-rich and ice-poor permafrost to map ground temperatures and ground ice occurrence in the Swiss Alps
New ground ice maps for Canada using a paleogeographic modelling approach
Origin, burial and preservation of late Pleistocene-age glacier ice in Arctic permafrost (Bylot Island, NU, Canada)
Characteristics and fate of isolated permafrost patches in coastal Labrador, Canada
Rock glaciers in Daxue Shan, south-eastern Tibetan Plateau: an inventory, their distribution, and their environmental controls
Microtopographic control on the ground thermal regime in ice wedge polygons
Change in frozen soils and its effect on regional hydrology, upper Heihe basin, northeastern Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau
Climate warming over the past half century has led to thermal degradation of permafrost on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau
Decadal changes of surface elevation over permafrost area estimated using reflected GPS signals
Characterizing permafrost active layer dynamics and sensitivity to landscape spatial heterogeneity in Alaska
Resolution capacity of geophysical monitoring regarding permafrost degradation induced by hydrological processes
A new map of permafrost distribution on the Tibetan Plateau
Distinguishing between old and modern permafrost sources in the northeast Siberian land–shelf system with compound-specific δ2H analysis
Modelling rock wall permafrost degradation in the Mont Blanc massif from the LIA to the end of the 21st century
New observations indicate the possible presence of permafrost in North Africa (Djebel Toubkal, High Atlas, Morocco)
Transient modeling of the ground thermal conditions using satellite data in the Lena River delta, Siberia
Wind-driven snow conditions control the occurrence of contemporary marginal mountain permafrost in the Chic-Choc Mountains, south-eastern Canada: a case study from Mont Jacques-Cartier
Numerical modelling of convective heat transport by air flow in permafrost talus slopes
Cryostratigraphy, sedimentology, and the late Quaternary evolution of the Zackenberg River delta, northeast Greenland
Response of seasonal soil freeze depth to climate change across China
Mihai O. Cimpoiasu, Oliver Kuras, Harry Harrison, Paul B. Wilkinson, Philip Meldrum, Jonathan E. Chambers, Dane Liljestrand, Carlos Oroza, Steven K. Schmidt, Pacifica Sommers, Lara Vimercati, Trevor P. Irons, Zhou Lyu, Adam Solon, and James A. Bradley
The Cryosphere, 19, 401–421, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-401-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-401-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Young Arctic sediments, uncovered by retreating glaciers, are in continuous development, shaped by how water infiltrates and is stored in the near subsurface. Harsh weather conditions at high latitudes make direct observation of these environments very difficult. To address this, we deployed two automated sensor installations in August 2021 on a glacier forefield in Svalbard. These sensors recorded continuously for 1 year, revealing unprecedented images of the ground’s freeze–thaw transition.
Clemens Moser, Umberto Morra di Cella, Christian Hauck, and Adrián Flores Orozco
The Cryosphere, 19, 143–171, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We use electrical conductivity and induced polarization in an imaging framework to quantify hydrogeological parameters in the active Gran Sometta rock glacier. The results show high spatial variability in the hydrogeological parameters across the rock glacier and are validated by saltwater tracer tests coupled with 3D electrical conductivity imaging. Hydrogeological information was linked to kinematic data to further investigate its role in rock glacier movement.
Tamara Mathys, Muslim Azimshoev, Zhoodarbeshim Bektursunov, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Murataly Duishonakunov, Abdulhamid Kayumov, Nikolay Kassatkin, Vassily Kapitsa, Leo C. P. Martin, Coline Mollaret, Hofiz Navruzshoev, Eric Pohl, Tomas Saks, Intizor Silmonov, Timur Musaev, Ryskul Usubaliev, and Martin Hoelzle
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2795, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2795, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides a comprehensive geophysical dataset on permafrost in the data-scarce Tien Shan and Pamir mountain regions of Central Asia. It also introduces a novel modeling method to quantify ground ice content across different landforms. The findings indicate that this approach is well-suited for characterizing ice-rich permafrost, which is crucial for evaluating future water availability and assessing risks associated with thawing permafrost.
Cassandra E.M. Koenig, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, Lukas U. Arenson, and Pablo Wainstein
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2244, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2244, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents an analysis of ground temperature data from 53 high-altitude boreholes in permafrost regions of the Central Andes. Results show that thermal characteristics of the region align with other mountain permafrost areas, while also showing unique features. The dataset could improve permafrost models and monitoring efforts, and inform mitigation strategies. The study highlights a notable collaboration between industry, academia, and regulators for advancing climate change research.
H. Brendan O'Neill, Stephen A. Wolfe, Caroline Duchesne, and Ryan J. H. Parker
The Cryosphere, 18, 2979–2990, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2979-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2979-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Maps that show ground ice in permafrost at circumpolar or hemispherical scales offer only general depictions of broad patterns in ice content. In this paper, we show that using more detailed surficial geology in a ground ice computer model significantly improves the depiction of ground ice and makes the mapping useful for assessments of the effects of permafrost thaw and for reconnaissance planning of infrastructure routing.
Alexandra Hamm, Erik Schytt Mannerfelt, Aaron A. Mohammed, Scott L. Painter, Ethan T. Coon, and Andrew Frampton
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1606, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1606, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The fate of thawing permafrost carbon is essential to our understanding of the permafrost-climate feedback and projections of future climate. Here, we modeled the transport of carbon in the groundwater within the active layer. We find that carbon transport velocities and potential microbial mineralization rates are strongly dependent on liquid saturation in the seasonally thawed active layer. In a warming climate, the rate at which permafrost thaws determines how fast carbon can be transported.
Samuel Valman, Matthias B. Siewert, Doreen Boyd, Martha Ledger, David Gee, Betsabé de la Barreda-Bautista, Andrew Sowter, and Sofie Sjögersten
The Cryosphere, 18, 1773–1790, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1773-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1773-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Climate warming is thawing permafrost that makes up palsa (frost mound) peatlands, risking ecosystem collapse and carbon release as methane. We measure this regional degradation using radar satellite technology to examine ground elevation changes and show how terrain roughness measurements can be used to estimate local permafrost damage. We find that over half of Sweden's largest palsa peatlands are degrading, with the worse impacts to the north linked to increased winter precipitation.
Moritz Langer, Jan Nitzbon, Brian Groenke, Lisa-Marie Assmann, Thomas Schneider von Deimling, Simone Maria Stuenzi, and Sebastian Westermann
The Cryosphere, 18, 363–385, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-363-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-363-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Using a model that can simulate the evolution of Arctic permafrost over centuries to millennia, we find that post-industrialization permafrost warming has three "hotspots" in NE Canada, N Alaska, and W Siberia. The extent of near-surface permafrost has decreased substantially since 1850, with the largest area losses occurring in the last 50 years. The simulations also show that volcanic eruptions have in some cases counteracted the loss of near-surface permafrost for a few decades.
Dotan Rotem, Vladimir Lyakhovsky, Hanne Hvidtfeldt Christiansen, Yehudit Harlavan, and Yishai Weinstein
The Cryosphere, 17, 3363–3381, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3363-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3363-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Frozen saline pore water, left over from post-glacial marine ingression, was found in shallow permafrost in a Svalbard fjord valley. This suggests that freezing occurred immediately after marine regression due to isostatic rebound. We conducted top-down freezing simulations, which confirmed that with Early to mid-Holocene temperatures (e.g. −4 °C), freezing could progress down to 20–40 m within 200 years. This, in turn, could inhibit flow through the sediment, therefore preserving saline fluids.
Oona Leppiniemi, Olli Karjalainen, Juha Aalto, Miska Luoto, and Jan Hjort
The Cryosphere, 17, 3157–3176, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3157-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3157-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
For the first time, suitable environments for palsas and peat plateaus were modeled for the whole Northern Hemisphere. The hotspots of occurrences were in northern Europe, western Siberia, and subarctic Canada. Climate change was predicted to cause almost complete loss of the studied landforms by the late century. Our predictions filled knowledge gaps in the distribution of the landforms, and they can be utilized in estimation of the pace and impacts of the climate change over northern regions.
Justyna Czekirda, Bernd Etzelmüller, Sebastian Westermann, Ketil Isaksen, and Florence Magnin
The Cryosphere, 17, 2725–2754, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2725-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2725-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We assess spatio-temporal permafrost variations in selected rock walls in Norway over the last 120 years. Ground temperature is modelled using the two-dimensional ground heat flux model CryoGrid 2D along nine profiles. Permafrost probably occurs at most sites. All simulations show increasing ground temperature from the 1980s. Our simulations show that rock wall permafrost with a temperature of −1 °C at 20 m depth could thaw at this depth within 50 years.
Yan Hu, Stephan Harrison, Lin Liu, and Joanne Laura Wood
The Cryosphere, 17, 2305–2321, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2305-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2305-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers are considered to be important freshwater reservoirs in the future climate. However, the amount of ice stored in rock glaciers is poorly quantified. Here we developed an empirical model to estimate ice content in rock the glaciers in the Khumbu and Lhotse valleys, Nepal. The modelling results confirmed the hydrological importance of rock glaciers in the study area. The developed approach shows promise in being applied to permafrost regions to assess water storage of rock glaciers.
Shibing Huang, Haowei Cai, Zekun Xin, and Gang Liu
The Cryosphere, 17, 1205–1223, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1205-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1205-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, the warming degradation mechanism of ice-filled joints is revealed, and the effect of temperature, normal stress, shear rate and joint opening on the shear strength of rough ice-filled joints is investigated. The shear rupture modes include shear cracking of joint ice and debonding of the ice–rock interface, which is related to the above factors. The bonding strength of the ice–rock interface is larger than the shear strength of joint ice when the temperature is below −1 ℃.
Yifeng Wang, Robert G. Way, Jordan Beer, Anika Forget, Rosamond Tutton, and Meredith C. Purcell
The Cryosphere, 17, 63–78, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-63-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-63-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Peatland permafrost in northeastern Canada has been misrepresented by models, leading to significant underestimates of peatland permafrost and permafrost distribution along the Labrador Sea coastline. Our multi-stage, multi-mapper, consensus-based inventorying process, supported by field- and imagery-based validation efforts, identifies peatland permafrost complexes all along the coast. The highest density of complexes is found to the south of the current sporadic discontinuous permafrost limit.
Shaoyong Wang, Xiaobo He, Shichang Kang, Hui Fu, and Xiaofeng Hong
The Cryosphere, 16, 5023–5040, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-5023-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-5023-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study used the sine-wave exponential model and long-term water stable isotopic data to estimate water mean residence time (MRT) and its influencing factors in a high-altitude permafrost catchment (5300 m a.s.l.) in the central Tibetan Plateau (TP). MRT for stream and supra-permafrost water was estimated at 100 and 255 d, respectively. Climate and vegetation factors affected the MRT of stream and supra-permafrost water mainly by changing the thickness of the permafrost active layer.
Bin Cao, Gabriele Arduini, and Ervin Zsoter
The Cryosphere, 16, 2701–2708, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2701-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2701-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We implemented a new multi-layer snow scheme in the land surface scheme of ERA5-Land with revised snow densification parameterizations. The revised HTESSEL improved the representation of soil temperature in permafrost regions compared to ERA5-Land; in particular, warm bias in winter was significantly reduced, and the resulting modeled near-surface permafrost extent was improved.
Tamara Mathys, Christin Hilbich, Lukas U. Arenson, Pablo A. Wainstein, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 16, 2595–2615, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
With ongoing climate change, there is a pressing need to understand how much water is stored as ground ice in permafrost. Still, field-based data on permafrost in the Andes are scarce, resulting in large uncertainties regarding ground ice volumes and their hydrological role. We introduce an upscaling methodology of geophysical-based ground ice quantifications at the catchment scale. Our results indicate that substantial ground ice volumes may also be present in areas without rock glaciers.
Rowan Romeyn, Alfred Hanssen, and Andreas Köhler
The Cryosphere, 16, 2025–2050, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2025-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2025-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We have investigated a long-term record of ground vibrations, recorded by a seismic array installed in Adventdalen, Svalbard. This record contains a large number of
frost quakes, a type of ground shaking that can be produced by cracks that form as the ground cools rapidly. We use underground temperatures measured in a nearby borehole to model forces of thermal expansion and contraction that can cause these cracks. We also use the seismic measurements to estimate where these cracks occurred.
Hongwei Liu, Pooneh Maghoul, and Ahmed Shalaby
The Cryosphere, 16, 1157–1180, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1157-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1157-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The knowledge of physical and mechanical properties of permafrost and its location is critical for the management of permafrost-related geohazards. Here, we developed a hybrid inverse and multiphase poromechanical approach to quantitatively estimate the physical and mechanical properties of a permafrost site. Our study demonstrates the potential of surface wave techniques coupled with our proposed data-processing algorithm to characterize a permafrost site more accurately.
Jiahua Zhang, Lin Liu, Lei Su, and Tao Che
The Cryosphere, 15, 3021–3033, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3021-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3021-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We improve the commonly used GPS-IR algorithm for estimating surface soil moisture in permafrost areas, which does not consider the bias introduced by seasonal surface vertical movement. We propose a three-in-one framework to integrate the GPS-IR observations of surface elevation changes, soil moisture, and snow depth at one site and illustrate it by using a GPS site in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. This study is the first to use GPS-IR to measure environmental variables in the Tibetan Plateau.
Juditha Undine Schmidt, Bernd Etzelmüller, Thomas Vikhamar Schuler, Florence Magnin, Julia Boike, Moritz Langer, and Sebastian Westermann
The Cryosphere, 15, 2491–2509, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2491-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2491-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents rock surface temperatures (RSTs) of steep high-Arctic rock walls on Svalbard from 2016 to 2020. The field data show that coastal cliffs are characterized by warmer RSTs than inland locations during winter seasons. By running model simulations, we analyze factors leading to that effect, calculate the surface energy balance and simulate different future scenarios. Both field data and model results can contribute to a further understanding of RST in high-Arctic rock walls.
Thomas Schneider von Deimling, Hanna Lee, Thomas Ingeman-Nielsen, Sebastian Westermann, Vladimir Romanovsky, Scott Lamoureux, Donald A. Walker, Sarah Chadburn, Erin Trochim, Lei Cai, Jan Nitzbon, Stephan Jacobi, and Moritz Langer
The Cryosphere, 15, 2451–2471, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2451-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2451-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Climate warming puts infrastructure built on permafrost at risk of failure. There is a growing need for appropriate model-based risk assessments. Here we present a modelling study and show an exemplary case of how a gravel road in a cold permafrost environment in Alaska might suffer from degrading permafrost under a scenario of intense climate warming. We use this case study to discuss the broader-scale applicability of our model for simulating future Arctic infrastructure failure.
Rowan Romeyn, Alfred Hanssen, Bent Ole Ruud, Helene Meling Stemland, and Tor Arne Johansen
The Cryosphere, 15, 283–302, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-283-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-283-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A series of unusual ground motion signatures were identified in geophone recordings at a frost polygon site in Adventdalen on Svalbard. By analysing where the ground motion originated in time and space, we are able to classify them as cryoseisms, also known as frost quakes, a ground-cracking phenomenon that occurs as a result of freezing processes. The waves travelling through the ground produced by these frost quakes also allow us to measure the structure of the permafrost in the near surface.
Lei Cai, Hanna Lee, Kjetil Schanke Aas, and Sebastian Westermann
The Cryosphere, 14, 4611–4626, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4611-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4611-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A sub-grid representation of excess ground ice in the Community Land Model (CLM) is developed as novel progress in modeling permafrost thaw and its impacts under the warming climate. The modeled permafrost degradation with sub-grid excess ice follows the pathway that continuous permafrost transforms into discontinuous permafrost before it disappears, including surface subsidence and talik formation, which are highly permafrost-relevant landscape changes excluded from most land models.
Rupesh Subedi, Steven V. Kokelj, and Stephan Gruber
The Cryosphere, 14, 4341–4364, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4341-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4341-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Permafrost beneath tundra near Lac de Gras (Northwest Territories, Canada) contains more ice and less organic carbon than shown in global compilations. Excess-ice content of 20–60 %, likely remnant Laurentide basal ice, is found in upland till. This study is based on 24 boreholes up to 10 m deep. Findings highlight geology and glacial legacy as determinants of a mosaic of permafrost characteristics with potential for thaw subsidence up to several metres in some locations.
Bin Cao, Stephan Gruber, Donghai Zheng, and Xin Li
The Cryosphere, 14, 2581–2595, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2581-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2581-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study reports that ERA5-Land (ERA5L) soil temperature bias in permafrost regions correlates with the bias in air temperature and with maximum snow height. While global reanalyses are important drivers for permafrost study, ERA5L soil data are not well suited for directly informing permafrost research decision making due to their warm bias in winter. To address this, future soil temperature products in reanalyses will require permafrost-specific alterations to their land surface models.
Ji-Woong Yang, Jinho Ahn, Go Iwahana, Sangyoung Han, Kyungmin Kim, and Alexander Fedorov
The Cryosphere, 14, 1311–1324, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1311-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1311-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Thawing permafrost may lead to decomposition of soil carbon and nitrogen and emission of greenhouse gases. Thus, methane and nitrous oxide compositions in ground ice may provide information on their production mechanisms in permafrost. We test conventional wet and dry extraction methods. We find that both methods extract gas from the easily extractable parts of the ice and yield similar results for mixing ratios. However, both techniques are unable to fully extract gas from the ice.
Nikita Demidov, Sebastian Wetterich, Sergey Verkulich, Aleksey Ekaykin, Hanno Meyer, Mikhail Anisimov, Lutz Schirrmeister, Vasily Demidov, and Andrew J. Hodson
The Cryosphere, 13, 3155–3169, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3155-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3155-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
As Norwegian geologist Liestøl (1996) recognised,
in connection with formation of pingos there are a great many unsolved questions. Drillings and temperature measurements through the pingo mound and also through the surrounding permafrost are needed before the problems can be better understood. To shed light on pingo formation here we present the results of first drilling of pingo on Spitsbergen together with results of detailed hydrochemical and stable-isotope studies of massive-ice samples.
Coline Mollaret, Christin Hilbich, Cécile Pellet, Adrian Flores-Orozco, Reynald Delaloye, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 13, 2557–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present a long-term multisite electrical resistivity tomography monitoring network (more than 1000 datasets recorded from six mountain permafrost sites). Despite harsh and remote measurement conditions, the datasets are of good quality and show consistent spatio-temporal variations yielding significant added value to point-scale borehole information. Observed long-term trends are similar for all permafrost sites, showing ongoing permafrost thaw and ground ice loss due to climatic conditions.
Jing Tao, Randal D. Koster, Rolf H. Reichle, Barton A. Forman, Yuan Xue, Richard H. Chen, and Mahta Moghaddam
The Cryosphere, 13, 2087–2110, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2087-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2087-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The active layer thickness (ALT) in middle-to-high northern latitudes from 1980 to 2017 was produced at 81 km2 resolution by a global land surface model (NASA's CLSM) with forcing fields from a reanalysis data set, MERRA-2. The simulated permafrost distribution and ALTs agree reasonably well with an observation-based map and in situ measurements, respectively. The accumulated above-freezing air temperature and maximum snow water equivalent explain most of the year-to-year variability of ALT.
Robert Kenner, Jeannette Noetzli, Martin Hoelzle, Hugo Raetzo, and Marcia Phillips
The Cryosphere, 13, 1925–1941, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1925-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1925-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
A new permafrost mapping method distinguishes between ice-poor and ice-rich permafrost. The approach was tested for the entire Swiss Alps and highlights the dominating influence of the factors elevation and solar radiation on the distribution of ice-poor permafrost. Our method enabled the indication of mean annual ground temperatures and the cartographic representation of permafrost-free belts, which are bounded above by ice-poor permafrost and below by permafrost-containing excess ice.
H. Brendan O'Neill, Stephen A. Wolfe, and Caroline Duchesne
The Cryosphere, 13, 753–773, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-753-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-753-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we present new models to depict ground ice in permafrost in Canada, incorporating knowledge from recent studies. The model outputs we present reproduce observed regional ground ice conditions and are generally comparable with previous mapping. However, our results are more detailed and more accurately reflect ground ice conditions in many regions. The new mapping is an important step toward understanding terrain response to permafrost degradation in Canada.
Stephanie Coulombe, Daniel Fortier, Denis Lacelle, Mikhail Kanevskiy, and Yuri Shur
The Cryosphere, 13, 97–111, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-97-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-97-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides a detailed description of relict glacier ice preserved in the permafrost of Bylot Island (Nunavut). We demonstrate that the 18O composition (-34.0 0.4 ‰) of the ice is consistent with the late Pleistocene age ice in the Barnes Ice Cap. As most of the glaciated Arctic landscapes are still strongly determined by their glacial legacy, the melting of these large ice bodies could have significant impacts on permafrost geosystem landscape dynamics and ecosystems.
Robert G. Way, Antoni G. Lewkowicz, and Yu Zhang
The Cryosphere, 12, 2667–2688, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2667-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2667-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Isolated patches of permafrost in southeast Labrador are among the southernmost lowland permafrost features in Canada. Local characteristics at six sites were investigated from Cartwright, NL (~ 54° N) to Blanc-Sablon, QC (~ 51° N). Annual ground temperatures varied from −0.7 °C to −2.3 °C with permafrost thicknesses of 1.7–12 m. Ground temperatures modelled for two sites showed permafrost disappearing at the southern site by 2060 and persistence beyond 2100 at the northern site only for RCP2.6.
Zeze Ran and Gengnian Liu
The Cryosphere, 12, 2327–2340, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2327-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2327-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This article provides the first rock glacier inventory of Daxue Shan, south- eastern Tibetan Plateau. This study provides important data for exploring the relation between maritime periglacial environments and the development of rock glaciers on the south-eastern Tibetan Plateau (TP). It may also highlight the characteristics typical of rock glaciers found in a maritime setting.
Charles J. Abolt, Michael H. Young, Adam L. Atchley, and Dylan R. Harp
The Cryosphere, 12, 1957–1968, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1957-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1957-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the relationship between ice wedge polygon topography and near-surface ground temperature using a combination of field work and numerical modeling. We analyze a year-long record of ground temperature across a low-centered polygon, then demonstrate that lower rims and deeper troughs promote warmer conditions in the ice wedge in winter. This finding implies that ice wedge cracking and growth, which are driven by cold conditions, can be impeded by rim erosion or trough subsidence.
Bing Gao, Dawen Yang, Yue Qin, Yuhan Wang, Hongyi Li, Yanlin Zhang, and Tingjun Zhang
The Cryosphere, 12, 657–673, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-657-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-657-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This study developed a distributed hydrological model coupled with cryospherical processes and applied it in order to simulate the long-term change of frozen ground and its effect on hydrology in the upper Heihe basin. Results showed that the permafrost area shrank by 8.8%, and the frozen depth of seasonally frozen ground decreased. Runoff in cold seasons and annual liquid soil moisture increased due to frozen soils change. Groundwater recharge was enhanced due to the degradation of permafrost.
Youhua Ran, Xin Li, and Guodong Cheng
The Cryosphere, 12, 595–608, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-595-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-595-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Approximately 88 % of the permafrost area in the 1960s has been thermally degraded in the past half century over the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. The mean elevations of the very cold, cold, cool, warm, very warm, and likely thawing permafrost areas increased by 88 m, 97 m, 155 m, 185 m, 161 m, and 250 m, respectively. This degradation may lead to increases in risks to infrastructure, flood, reductions in ecosystem resilience, and positive climate feedback.
Lin Liu and Kristine M. Larson
The Cryosphere, 12, 477–489, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-477-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-477-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate the use of reflected GPS signals to measure elevation changes over a permafrost area in northern Alaska. For the first time, we construct a daily-sampled time series of elevation changes over 12 summers. Our results show regular thaw subsidence within each summer and a secular subsidence trend of 0.3 cm per year. This method promises a new way to utilize GPS data in cold regions for studying frozen ground consistently and sustainably over a long time.
Yonghong Yi, John S. Kimball, Richard H. Chen, Mahta Moghaddam, Rolf H. Reichle, Umakant Mishra, Donatella Zona, and Walter C. Oechel
The Cryosphere, 12, 145–161, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-145-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-145-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
An important feature of the Arctic is large spatial heterogeneity in active layer conditions. We developed a modeling framework integrating airborne longwave radar and satellite data to investigate active layer thickness (ALT) sensitivity to landscape heterogeneity in Alaska. We find uncertainty in spatial and vertical distribution of soil organic carbon is the largest factor affecting ALT accuracy. Advances in remote sensing of soil conditions will enable more accurate ALT predictions.
Benjamin Mewes, Christin Hilbich, Reynald Delaloye, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 11, 2957–2974, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2957-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2957-2017, 2017
Defu Zou, Lin Zhao, Yu Sheng, Ji Chen, Guojie Hu, Tonghua Wu, Jichun Wu, Changwei Xie, Xiaodong Wu, Qiangqiang Pang, Wu Wang, Erji Du, Wangping Li, Guangyue Liu, Jing Li, Yanhui Qin, Yongping Qiao, Zhiwei Wang, Jianzong Shi, and Guodong Cheng
The Cryosphere, 11, 2527–2542, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2527-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2527-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The area and distribution of permafrost on the Tibetan Plateau are unclear and controversial. This paper generated a benchmark map based on the modified remote sensing products and validated it using ground-based data sets. Compared with two existing maps, the new map performed better and showed that permafrost covered areas of 1.06 × 106 km2. The results provide more detailed information on the permafrost distribution and basic data for use in future research on the Tibetan Plateau permafrost.
Jorien E. Vonk, Tommaso Tesi, Lisa Bröder, Henry Holmstrand, Gustaf Hugelius, August Andersson, Oleg Dudarev, Igor Semiletov, and Örjan Gustafsson
The Cryosphere, 11, 1879–1895, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1879-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1879-2017, 2017
Florence Magnin, Jean-Yves Josnin, Ludovic Ravanel, Julien Pergaud, Benjamin Pohl, and Philip Deline
The Cryosphere, 11, 1813–1834, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1813-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1813-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Permafrost degradation in high mountain rock walls provokes destabilisation, constituting a threat for human activities. In the Mont Blanc massif, more than 700 rockfalls have been inventoried in recent years (2003, 2007–2015). Understanding permafrost evolution is thus crucial to sustain this densely populated area. This study investigates the changes in rock wall permafrost from 1850 to the recent period and possible optimistic or pessimistic evolutions during the 21st century.
Gonçalo Vieira, Carla Mora, and Ali Faleh
The Cryosphere, 11, 1691–1705, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1691-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1691-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The Toubkal is the highest massif in North Africa (4167 m). Landforms and deposits above 3000 m show the effects of frost action in the present-day geomorphological dynamics, but data on ground temperatures were lacking. In this study ground surface temperature data measured across an altitudinal transect are presented and analysed for the first time. The highlight is the possible occurrence of permafrost at an elevation of 3800 m, which may be of high ecological and hydrological significance.
Sebastian Westermann, Maria Peter, Moritz Langer, Georg Schwamborn, Lutz Schirrmeister, Bernd Etzelmüller, and Julia Boike
The Cryosphere, 11, 1441–1463, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1441-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1441-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate a remote-sensing-based scheme estimating the evolution of ground temperature and active layer thickness by means of a ground thermal model. A comparison to in situ observations from the Lena River delta in Siberia indicates that the model is generally capable of reproducing the annual temperature regime and seasonal thawing of the ground. The approach could hence be a first step towards remote detection of ground thermal conditions in permafrost areas.
Gautier Davesne, Daniel Fortier, Florent Domine, and James T. Gray
The Cryosphere, 11, 1351–1370, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1351-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1351-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents data from Mont Jacques-Cartier, the highest summit in the Appalachians of south-eastern Canada, to demonstrate that the occurrence of contemporary permafrost body is associated with a very thin and wind-packed winter snow cover which brings local azonal topo-climatic conditions on the dome-shaped summit. This study is an important preliminary step in modelling the regional spatial distribution of permafrost on the highest summits in eastern North America.
Jonas Wicky and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 11, 1311–1325, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1311-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1311-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Talus slopes are a widespread geomorphic feature, which may show permafrost conditions even at low elevation due to cold microclimates induced by a gravity-driven internal air circulation. We show for the first time a numerical simulation of this internal air circulation of a field-scale talus slope. Results indicate that convective heat transfer leads to a pronounced ground cooling in the lower part of the talus slope favoring the persistence of permafrost.
Graham L. Gilbert, Stefanie Cable, Christine Thiel, Hanne H. Christiansen, and Bo Elberling
The Cryosphere, 11, 1265–1282, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1265-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1265-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We reconstruct the Holocene development of the Zackenberg River delta (northeast Greenland) using a combination of sedimentology, cryostratigraphy, and geochronology. We distinguish four major depositional environments and identify three cryofacies. We apply the principles of cryostratigraphy to infer the aggradational history of permafrost. This paper contains an archive of ground ice in epigenetic permafrost in northeast Greenland.
Xiaoqing Peng, Tingjun Zhang, Oliver W. Frauenfeld, Kang Wang, Bin Cao, Xinyue Zhong, Hang Su, and Cuicui Mu
The Cryosphere, 11, 1059–1073, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1059-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1059-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Previous research has paid significant attention to permafrost, e.g. active layer thickness, soil temperature, area extent, and associated degradation leading to other changes. However, less focus has been given to seasonally frozen ground and vast area extent. We combined data from more than 800 observation stations, as well as gridded data, to investigate soil freeze depth across China. The results indicate that soil freeze depth decreases with climate warming.
Cited articles
Arenson, L., Hoelzle, M., and Springman, S.: Borehole deformation measurements and internal structure of some rock glaciers in Switzerland, Permafrost Periglac., 13, 117–135, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.414, 2002.
Avian, M., Kellerer-Pirklbauer, A., and Bauer, A.: LiDAR for monitoring mass movements in permafrost environments at the cirque Hinteres Langtal, Austria, between 2000 and 2008, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 9, 1087–1094, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-9-1087-2009, 2009.
Barsch, D.: Nature and importance of mass-wasting by rock glaciers in alpine permafrost environments, Earth Surf. Processes, 2, 231–245, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290020213, 1977.
Barsch, D.: Rockglaciers: Indicators for the Present and Former Geoecology in High Mountain Environments, Springer, Berlin, 1996.
Berardino, P., Fornaro, G., Lanari, R., and Sansosti, E.: A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 40, 2375–2383, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2002.803792, 2002.
Berger, J., Krainer, K., and Mostler, W.: Dynamics of an active rock glacier (Ötztal Alps, Austria), Quaternary Res., 62, 233–242, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2004.07.002, 2004.
Berthling, I., Etzelmüller, B., Eiken, T., and Sollid, J. L.: Rock glaciers on Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard, I: internal structure, flow velocity and morphology, Permafrost Periglac., 9, 135–145, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1530(199804/06)9:2<135::AID-PPP284>3.0.CO;2-R, 1998.
Bodin, X., Thibert, E., Fabre, D., Ribolini, A., Schoeneich, P., Francou, B., Reynaud, L., and Fort, M.: Two decades of responses (1986–2006) to climate by the Laurichard rock glacier, French Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 20, 331–344, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.665, 2009.
Brenning, A.: Geomorphological, hydrological and climatic significance of rock glaciers in the Andes of Central Chile (33–35° S), Permafrost Periglac., 16, 231–240, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.528, 2005.
Burger, K. C., Degenhardt Jr., J. J., and Giardino, J. R.: Engineering geomorphology of rock glaciers, Geomorphology, 31, 93–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00074-4, 1999.
Chen, C. and Zebker, H.: Phase unwrapping for large SAR interferograms: statistical segmentation and generalized network models, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 40, 1709–1719, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2002.802453, 2002.
Clark, D. H. and Gillespie, A. R.: Timing and significance of Late-glacial and Holocene cirque glaciation in the Sierra Nevada, California, Quatern. Int., 38–39, 21–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(96)00024-9, 1997.
Clark, D. H., Clark, M. M., and Gillespie, A. R.: Debris-covered glaciers in the Sierra Nevada, California, and their implications for snowline reconstructions, Quaternary Res., 41, 139–153, https://doi.org/10.1006/qres.1994.1016, 1994.
Clow, D. W., Nanus, L., Verdin, K. L., and Schmidt, J.: Evaluation of SNODAS snow depth and snow water equivalent estimates for the Colorado Rocky Mountains, USA, Hydrol. Process., 26, 2583–2591, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9385, 2012.
Croce, F. A. and Milana, J. P.: Internal structure and behaviour of a rock glacier in the Arid Andes of Argentina, Permafrost Periglac., 13, 289–299, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.431, 2002.
Daly, C., Neilson, R. P., and Phillips, D. L.: A statistical-topographic model for mapping climatological precipitation over mountainous terrain, J. Appl. Meteorol., 33, 140–158, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1994)033<0140:ASTMFM>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Degenhardt Jr., J. J.: Development of tongue-shaped and multilobate rock glaciers in alpine environments – interpretations from ground penetrating radar surveys, Geomorphology, 109, 94–107, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.02.020, 2009.
Delaloye, R., Perruchoud, E., Avian, M., Kaufmann, V., Bodin, X., Hausmann, H., Ikeda, A., Kääb, A., Kellerer-Pirklbauer, A., Krainer, K., Lambiel, C., Mihajlovic, D., Staub, B., Roer, I., and Thibert, E.: Recent Interannual variations of rockglaciers creep in the European Alps, in: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Permafrost, Fairbanks, Alaska, 2008.
Delaloye, R., Lambiel, C., and Gärtner-Roer, I.: Overview of rock glacier kinematics research in the Swiss Alps, Geogr. Helv., 65, 135–145, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-65-135-2010, 2010.
Gesch, D., Oimoen, M., Greenlee, S., Nelson, C., Steuck, M., and Tyler, D.: The national elevation dataset, Photogramm. Eng. Rem. S., 68, 5–11, 2002.
Gruber, S. and Haeberli, W.: Permafrost in steep bedrock slopes and its temperature-related destabilization following climate change, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02S18, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000547, 2007.
Guneriussen, T., Hogda, K., Johnsen, H., and Lauknes, I.: InSAR for estimation of changes in snow water equivalent of dry snow, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 39, 2101–2108, https://doi.org/10.1109/36.957273, 2001.
Haeberli, W.: Creep of mountain permafrost: internal structure and flow of alpine rock glaciers, Mit. Vers. Was., 77, 5–142, 1985.
Haeberli, W., Kääb, A., Wagner, S., Mühll, D., Geissler, P., Haas, J., Glatzel-Mattheier, H., and Wagenbach, D.: Pollen analysis and 14C age of moss remains in a permafrost core recovered from the active rock glacier Murtèl-Corvatsch, Swiss Alps: geomorphological and glaciological implications, J. Glaciol., 45, 1–8, 1999.
Haeberli, W., Hallet, B., Arenson, L., Elconin, R., Humlum, O., Kääb, A., Kaufmann, V., Ladanyi, B., Matsuoka, N., Springman, S., and Mühll, D. V.: Permafrost creep and rock glacier dynamics, Permafrost Periglac., 17, 189–214, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.561, 2006.
Harrison, S., Whalley, B., and Anderson, E.: Relict rock glaciers and protalus lobes in the British Isles: implications for Late Pleistocene mountain geomorphology and palaeoclimate, J. Quaternary Sci., 23, 287–304, https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1148, 2008.
Humlum, O.: The climatic significance of rock glaciers, Permafrost Periglac., 9, 375–395, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1530(199810/12)9:4<375::AID-PPP301>3.0.CO;2-0, 1998.
Humlum, O.: The geomorphic significance of rock glaciers: estimates of rock glacier debris volumes and headwall recession rates in West Greenland, Geomorphology, 35, 41–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(00)00022-2, 2000.
Ikeda, A., Matsuoka, N., and Kääb, A.: Fast deformation of perennially frozen debris in a warm rock glacier in the Swiss Alps: an effect of liquid water, J. Geophys. Res., 113, F01021, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JF000859, 2008.
Isaksen, K., Ødegård, R. S., Eiken, T., and Sollid, J. L.: Composition, flow and development of two tongue-shaped rock glaciers in the permafrost of Svalbard, Permafrost Periglac., 11, 241–257, https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1530(200007/09)11:3<241::AID-PPP358>3.0.CO;2-A, 2000.
Janke, J.: Long-term flow measurements (1961–2002) of the Arapaho, Taylor, and Fair rock glaciers, Front Range, Colorado, Phys. Geogr., 26, 313–336, https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3646.26.4.313, 2005.
Juliussen, H. and Humlum, O.: Thermal regime of openwork block fields on the mountains Elgåhogna and Sølen, central-eastern Norway, Permafrost Periglac., 19, 1–18, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.607, 2008.
Kääb, A.: Monitoring high-mountain terrain deformation from repeated air- and spaceborne optical data: examples using digital aerial imagery and ASTER data, ISPRS J. Photogramm., 57, 39–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2716(02)00114-4, 2002.
Kääb, A., Haeberli, W., and Gudmundsson, G. H.: Analysing the creep of mountain permafrost using high precision aerial photogrammetry: 25 years of monitoring Gruben rock glacier, Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 8, 409–426, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1530(199710/12)8:4<409::AID-PPP267>3.0.CO;2-C, 1997.
Kääb, A., Frauenfelder, R., and Roer, I.: On the response of rockglacier creep to surface temperature increase, Global Planet. Change, 56, 172–187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.07.005, 2007.
Kenyi, L. and Kaufmann, V.: Estimation of rock glacier surface deformation using SAR interferometry data, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 41, 1512–1515, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2003.811996, 2003.
Kistler, R. W.: Geologic map of the Mono Craters quadrangle, Mono and Tuolumne counties, California, Map GQ-462, Tech. rep., US Geological Survey, 1966.
Konrad, S. K., Humphrey, N. F., Steig, E. J., Clark, D. H., Potter, N., and Pfeffer, W. T.: Rock glacier dynamics and paleoclimatic implications, Geology, 27, 1131–1134, 1999.
Krainer, K. and Mostler, W.: Reichenkar rock glacier: a glacier derived debris-ice system in the western Stubai Alps, Austria, Permafrost Periglac., 11, 267–275, https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1530(200007/09)11:3<267::AID-PPP350>3.0.CO;2-E, 2000.
Lambiel, C. and Delaloye, R.: Contribution of real-time kinematic GPS in the study of creeping mountain permafrost: examples from the Western Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 15, 229–241, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.496, 2004.
Leopold, M., Williams, M., Caine, N., Völkel, J., and Dethier, D.: Internal structure of the Green Lake 5 rock glacier, Colorado Front Range, USA, Permafrost Periglac., 22, 107–119, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.706, 2011.
Limpach, P., Geiger, A., Beutel, J., Buchli, B., Wirz, V., and Gruber, S.: Permanent monitoring of rock glaciers with low-cost GPS, in: 9th Swiss Geoscience Meeting, 273–273, 2011.
Lundquist, J. D. and Cayan, D. R.: Surface temperature patterns in complex terrain: daily variations and long-term change in the central Sierra Nevada, California, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D11124, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007561, 2007.
Millar, C. I. and Westfall, R. D.: Rock glaciers and related periglacial landforms in the Sierra Nevada, CA, USA; inventory, distribution and climatic relationships, Quatern. Int., 188, 90–104, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2007.06.004, available at: http://nsidc.org/data/ggd652.html, 2008.
Millar, C. I., Westfall, R. D., and Delany, D. L.: Thermal and hydrologic attributes of rock glaciers and periglacial talus landforms, Sierra Nevada, California, USA, Quatern. Int., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.07.019, in press, 2012.
Nagler, T., Mayer, C., and Rott, H.: Feasibility of DINSAR for mapping complex motion fields of alpine ice- and rock-glaciers, in: Retrieval of Bio- and Geo-Physical Parameters from SAR Data for Land Applications, edited by: Wilson, A. and Quegan, S., Vol. 475 of ESA Special Publication, 377–382, 2002.
Nöetzli, J. and Vonder Müehll, D. (Eds.): Permafrost in Switzerland 2006/2007 and 2007/2008, Glaciological Report (Permafrost), The Cryospheric Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences, 2010.
Perruchoud, E. and Delaloye, R.: Short-term changes in surface velocities on the Becs-de-Bosson rock glacier (western Swiss Alps), in: Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on High Mountain Remote Sensing Cartography (HMRSC-IX), vol. 43, 14–15, 2007.
Potter, N. J., Steig, E. J., Clark, D. H., Speece, M. A., Clark, G. M., and Updike, A. B.: Galena Creek rock glacier revisited: new observations on an old controversy, Geogr. Ann. A, 80, 251–265, 1998.
Rignot, E., Hallet, B., and Fountain, A.: Rock glacier surface motion in Beacon Valley, Antarctica, from synthetic-aperture radar interferometry, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1607, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013494, 2002.
Roer, I., Kääb, A., and Dikau, R.: Rockglacier kinematics derived from small-scale aerial photography and digital airborne pushbroom imagery, Zeitschriftfür Geomorphology N.F., 49, 73–87, 2005.
Rott, H. and Siegel, A.: Analysis of mass movements in alpine terrain by means of SAR interferometry, in: Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 1999, IGARSS '99 Proceedings, IEEE 1999 International, vol. 4, 1933–1936, https://doi.org/10.1109/IGARSS.1999.774991, 1999.
Serreze, M. C., Clark, M. P., Armstrong, R. L., McGinnis, D. A., and Pulwarty, R. S.: Characteristics of the western United States snowpack from snowpack telemetry (SNOTEL) data, Water Resour. Res., 35, 2145–2160, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999WR900090, 1999.
Strozzi, T., Kääb, A., and Frauenfelder, R.: Detecting and quantifying mountain permafrost creep from in situ inventory, space-borne radar interferometry and airborne digital photogrammetry, Int. J. Remote Sens., 25, 2919–2931, https://doi.org/10.1080/0143116042000192330, 2004.
Wagner, S.: Creep of alpine permafrost, investigated on the murtel rock glacier, Permafrost Periglac., 3, 157–162, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.3430030214, 1992.
Wahrhaftig, C. and Cox, A.: Rock glaciers in the Alaska range, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 70, 383–436, 1959.
Wessel, P. and Smith, W. H. F.: New, improved version of generic mapping tools released, EOS T. Am. Geophys. Un., 79, 579–579, https://doi.org/10.1029/98EO00426, 1998.
Zebker, H. A. and Villasenor, J.: Decorrelation in interferometric radar echoes, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 30, 950–959, 1992.
Zebker, H., Hensley, S., Shanker, P., and Wortham, C.: Geodetically Accurate InSAR Data Processor, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 48, 4309–4321, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2010.2051333, 2010.
