Articles | Volume 18, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1959-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1959-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
26 Apr 2024
Research article |
| 26 Apr 2024
| 26 Apr 2024
Snow depth in high-resolution regional climate model simulations over southern Germany – suitable for extremes and impact-related research?
Benjamin Poschlod
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Research Unit Sustainability and Climate Risk, Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability (CEN), Universität Hamburg, 20144 Hamburg, Germany
Anne Sophie Daloz
Center for International Climate Research (CICERO), 0349 Oslo, Norway
Related authors
Florian Zabel, Matthias Knüttel, and Benjamin Poschlod
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2526, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2526, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
CropSuite is a fuzzy-logic based high resolution open-source crop suitability model considering the impact of climate variability. We apply CropSuite for 48 important staple and cash crops at 1 km spatial resolution for Africa. We find that climate variability significantly impacts on suitable areas, but also affects optimal sowing dates, and multiple cropping potentials. The results provide information that can be used for climate impact assessments, adaptation and land-use planning.
Florian Zabel and Benjamin Poschlod
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5383–5399, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5383-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5383-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Today, most climate model data are provided at daily time steps. However, more and more models from different sectors, such as energy, water, agriculture, and health, require climate information at a sub-daily temporal resolution for a more robust and reliable climate impact assessment. Here we describe and validate the Teddy tool, a new model for the temporal disaggregation of daily climate model data for climate impact analysis.
Thomas Bueche, Marko Wenk, Benjamin Poschlod, Filippo Giadrossich, Mario Pirastru, and Mark Vetter
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 565–580, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-565-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-565-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The R-based graphical user interface glmGUI provides tools for pre- and postprocessing of General Lake Model (GLM) simulations. This includes an autocalibration, parameter sensitivity analysis, and several plot options. The model parameters can be analyzed and calibrated for the simulation output variables water temperature and lake level. The toolbox is tested for two sites (lake Ammersee, Germany, and lake Baratz, Italy).
Franziska Hellmuth, Tim Carlsen, Anne Sophie Daloz, Robert Oscar David, Haochi Che, and Trude Storelvmo
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 1353–1383, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1353-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1353-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This article compares the occurrence of supercooled liquid-containing clouds (sLCCs) and their link to surface snowfall in CloudSat–CALIPSO, ERA5, and the CMIP6 models. Significant discrepancies were found, with ERA5 and CMIP6 consistently overestimating sLCC and snowfall frequency. This bias is likely due to cloud microphysics parameterization. This conclusion has implications for accurately representing cloud phase and snowfall in future climate projections.
Gwendoline Ducros, Timothy Tiggeloven, Lin Ma, Anne Sophie Daloz, Nina Schuhen, and Marleen C. de Ruiter
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3158, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3158, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study finds that heatwave, drought and wildfire events occurring simultaneously in Scandinavia are pronounced in the summer months; and the heat-drought 2018 event led to a drop in gross domestic product, affecting agriculture and forestry imports, further impacting Europe’s trade balance. This research shows the importance of ripple effects of multi-hazard, and that forest management and adaptation measures are vital to reducing the risks of heat-related multi-hazards in vulnerable areas.
Florian Zabel, Matthias Knüttel, and Benjamin Poschlod
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2526, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2526, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
CropSuite is a fuzzy-logic based high resolution open-source crop suitability model considering the impact of climate variability. We apply CropSuite for 48 important staple and cash crops at 1 km spatial resolution for Africa. We find that climate variability significantly impacts on suitable areas, but also affects optimal sowing dates, and multiple cropping potentials. The results provide information that can be used for climate impact assessments, adaptation and land-use planning.
Clemens Schwingshackl, Anne Sophie Daloz, Carley Iles, Kristin Aunan, and Jana Sillmann
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 331–354, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-331-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-331-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ambient heat in European cities will substantially increase under global warming, as projected by three heat metrics calculated from high-resolution climate model simulations. While the heat metrics consistently project high levels of ambient heat for several cities, in other cities the projected heat levels vary considerably across the three heat metrics. Using complementary heat metrics for projections of ambient heat is thus important for assessments of future risks from heat stress.
Florian Zabel and Benjamin Poschlod
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5383–5399, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5383-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5383-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Today, most climate model data are provided at daily time steps. However, more and more models from different sectors, such as energy, water, agriculture, and health, require climate information at a sub-daily temporal resolution for a more robust and reliable climate impact assessment. Here we describe and validate the Teddy tool, a new model for the temporal disaggregation of daily climate model data for climate impact analysis.
Anne Sophie Daloz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Priscilla Mooney, Susanna Strada, Diana Rechid, Edouard L. Davin, Eleni Katragkou, Nathalie de Noblet-Ducoudré, Michal Belda, Tomas Halenka, Marcus Breil, Rita M. Cardoso, Peter Hoffmann, Daniela C. A. Lima, Ronny Meier, Pedro M. M. Soares, Giannis Sofiadis, Gustav Strandberg, Merja H. Toelle, and Marianne T. Lund
The Cryosphere, 16, 2403–2419, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2403-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2403-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Snow plays a major role in the regulation of the Earth's surface temperature. Together with climate change, rising temperatures are already altering snow in many ways. In this context, it is crucial to better understand the ability of climate models to represent snow and snow processes. This work focuses on Europe and shows that the melting season in spring still represents a challenge for climate models and that more work is needed to accurately simulate snow–atmosphere interactions.
Priscilla A. Mooney, Diana Rechid, Edouard L. Davin, Eleni Katragkou, Natalie de Noblet-Ducoudré, Marcus Breil, Rita M. Cardoso, Anne Sophie Daloz, Peter Hoffmann, Daniela C. A. Lima, Ronny Meier, Pedro M. M. Soares, Giannis Sofiadis, Susanna Strada, Gustav Strandberg, Merja H. Toelle, and Marianne T. Lund
The Cryosphere, 16, 1383–1397, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1383-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1383-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We use multiple regional climate models to show that afforestation in sub-polar and alpine regions reduces the radiative impact of snow albedo on the atmosphere, reduces snow cover, and delays the start of the snowmelt season. This is important for local communities that are highly reliant on snowpack for water resources and winter tourism. However, models disagree on the amount of change particularly when snow is melting. This shows that more research is needed on snow–vegetation interactions.
Anne Sophie Daloz, Marian Mateling, Tristan L'Ecuyer, Mark Kulie, Norm B. Wood, Mikael Durand, Melissa Wrzesien, Camilla W. Stjern, and Ashok P. Dimri
The Cryosphere, 14, 3195–3207, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3195-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3195-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The total of snow that falls globally is a critical factor governing freshwater availability. To better understand how this resource is impacted by climate change, we need to know how reliable the current observational datasets for snow are. Here, we compare five datasets looking at the snow falling over the mountains versus the other continents. We show that there is a large consensus when looking at fractional contributions but strong dissimilarities when comparing magnitudes.
Thomas Bueche, Marko Wenk, Benjamin Poschlod, Filippo Giadrossich, Mario Pirastru, and Mark Vetter
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 565–580, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-565-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-565-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The R-based graphical user interface glmGUI provides tools for pre- and postprocessing of General Lake Model (GLM) simulations. This includes an autocalibration, parameter sensitivity analysis, and several plot options. The model parameters can be analyzed and calibrated for the simulation output variables water temperature and lake level. The toolbox is tested for two sites (lake Ammersee, Germany, and lake Baratz, Italy).
Related subject area
Discipline: Snow | Subject: Seasonal Snow
Historical snow measurements in the central and southern Apennine Mountains: climatology, variability, and trend
Benchmarking of snow water equivalent (SWE) products based on outcomes of the SnowPEx+ Intercomparison Project
Snow depth sensitivity to mean temperature, precipitation, and elevation in the Austrian and Swiss Alps
Use of multiple reference data sources to cross-validate gridded snow water equivalent products over North America
Characterization of non-Gaussianity in the snow distributions of various landscapes
A simple snow temperature index model exposes discrepancies between reanalysis snow water equivalent products
Which global reanalysis dataset has better representativeness in snow cover on the Tibetan Plateau?
Spatial and temporal changes in autumn Eurasian snow cover and its relationship with the Arctic Oscillation
Snow water equivalent retrieval over Idaho – Part 2: Using L-band UAVSAR repeat-pass interferometry
Spatiotemporal snow water storage uncertainty in the midlatitude American Cordillera
Evaluation of snow cover properties in ERA5 and ERA5-Land with several satellite-based datasets in the Northern Hemisphere in spring 1982–2018
Multi-decadal analysis of past winter temperature, precipitation and snow cover data in the European Alps from reanalyses, climate models and observational datasets
Spatially continuous snow depth mapping by aeroplane photogrammetry for annual peak of winter from 2017 to 2021 in open areas
Change in the potential snowfall phenology: past, present, and future in the Chinese Tianshan mountainous region, Central Asia
The benefits of homogenising snow depth series – Impacts on decadal trends and extremes for Switzerland
Assessing the seasonal evolution of snow depth spatial variability and scaling in complex mountain terrain
Impact of measured and simulated tundra snowpack properties on heat transfer
Homogeneity assessment of Swiss snow depth series: comparison of break detection capabilities of (semi-)automatic homogenization methods
Propagating information from snow observations with CrocO ensemble data assimilation system: a 10-years case study over a snow depth observation network
Evaluation of Northern Hemisphere snow water equivalent in CMIP6 models during 1982–2014
Multilayer observation and estimation of the snowpack cold content in a humid boreal coniferous forest of eastern Canada
Spatiotemporal distribution of seasonal snow water equivalent in High Mountain Asia from an 18-year Landsat–MODIS era snow reanalysis dataset
Local-scale variability of seasonal mean and extreme values of in situ snow depth and snowfall measurements
Observed snow depth trends in the European Alps: 1971 to 2019
Snow Ensemble Uncertainty Project (SEUP): quantification of snow water equivalent uncertainty across North America via ensemble land surface modeling
Quantification of the radiative impact of light-absorbing particles during two contrasted snow seasons at Col du Lautaret (2058 m a.s.l., French Alps)
Snow depth estimation and historical data reconstruction over China based on a random forest machine learning approach
Evaluation of long-term Northern Hemisphere snow water equivalent products
Towards a webcam-based snow cover monitoring network: methodology and evaluation
Simulated single-layer forest canopies delay Northern Hemisphere snowmelt
Converting snow depth to snow water equivalent using climatological variables
Avalanches and micrometeorology driving mass and energy balance of the lowest perennial ice field of the Alps: a case study
The optical characteristics and sources of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) in seasonal snow of northwestern China
Brief Communication: Early season snowpack loss and implications for oversnow vehicle recreation travel planning
Multi-component ensembles of future meteorological and natural snow conditions for 1500 m altitude in the Chartreuse mountain range, Northern French Alps
Vincenzo Capozzi, Francesco Serrapica, Armando Rocco, Clizia Annella, and Giorgio Budillon
The Cryosphere, 19, 565–595, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-565-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-565-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This “journey through time” discovers historical information about snow precipitation in the Italian Apennines. In this area, in the second half of the past century, a gradual decline in snow persistence on the ground, as well as in the frequency of occurrence of snowfall events, has been observed, especially in sites located above 1000 m above sea level. The old data rescued in this study strongly enhance our knowledge about past snowfall variability and climate in the Mediterranean area.
Lawrence Mudryk, Colleen Mortimer, Chris Derksen, Aleksandra Elias Chereque, and Paul Kushner
The Cryosphere, 19, 201–218, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-201-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-201-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluate and rank 23 different datasets on their ability to accurately estimate historical snow amounts. The evaluation uses new a set of surface snow measurements with improved spatial coverage, enabling evaluation across both mountainous and nonmountainous regions. Performance measures vary tremendously across the products: while most perform reasonably in nonmountainous regions, accurate representation of snow amounts in mountainous regions and of historical trends is much more variable.
Matthew Switanek, Gernot Resch, Andreas Gobiet, Daniel Günther, Christoph Marty, and Wolfgang Schöner
The Cryosphere, 18, 6005–6026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-6005-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-6005-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Snow depth plays an important role in water resources, mountain tourism, and hazard management across the European Alps. Our study uses station-based historical observations to quantify how changes in temperature and precipitation affect average seasonal snow depth. We find that the relationship between these variables has been surprisingly robust over the last 120 years. This allows us to more accurately estimate how future climate will affect seasonal snow depth in different elevation zones.
Colleen Mortimer, Lawrence Mudryk, Eunsang Cho, Chris Derksen, Mike Brady, and Carrie Vuyovich
The Cryosphere, 18, 5619–5639, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5619-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5619-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ground measurements of snow water equivalent (SWE) are vital for understanding the accuracy of large-scale estimates from satellites and climate models. We compare two types of measurements – snow courses and airborne gamma SWE estimates – and analyze how measurement type impacts the accuracy assessment of gridded SWE products. We use this analysis to produce a combined reference SWE dataset for North America, applicable for future gridded SWE product evaluations and other applications.
Noriaki Ohara, Andrew D. Parsekian, Benjamin M. Jones, Rodrigo C. Rangel, Kenneth M. Hinkel, and Rui A. P. Perdigão
The Cryosphere, 18, 5139–5152, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5139-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5139-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Snow distribution characterization is essential for accurate snow water estimation for water resource prediction from existing in situ observations and remote-sensing data at a finite spatial resolution. Four different observed snow distribution datasets were analyzed for Gaussianity. We found that non-Gaussianity of snow distribution is a signature of the wind redistribution effect. Generally, seasonal snowpack can be approximated well by a Gaussian distribution for a fully snow-covered area.
Aleksandra Elias Chereque, Paul J. Kushner, Lawrence Mudryk, Chris Derksen, and Colleen Mortimer
The Cryosphere, 18, 4955–4969, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4955-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4955-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We look at three commonly used snow depth datasets that are produced through a combination of snow modelling and historical measurements (reanalysis). When compared with each other, these datasets have differences that arise for various reasons. We show that a simple snow model can be used to examine these inconsistencies and highlight issues. This method indicates that one of the complex datasets should be excluded from further studies.
Shirui Yan, Yang Chen, Yaliang Hou, Kexin Liu, Xuejing Li, Yuxuan Xing, Dongyou Wu, Jiecan Cui, Yue Zhou, Wei Pu, and Xin Wang
The Cryosphere, 18, 4089–4109, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4089-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4089-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The snow cover over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) plays a role in climate and hydrological systems, yet there are uncertainties in snow cover fraction (SCF) estimations within reanalysis datasets. This study utilized the Snow Property Inversion from Remote Sensing (SPIReS) SCF data to assess the accuracy of eight widely used reanalysis SCF datasets over the TP. Factors contributing to uncertainties were analyzed, and a combined averaging method was employed to provide optimized SCF simulations.
Gareth J. Marshall
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1892, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1892, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Eurasian autumn snow cover (SC) can influence Northern Hemisphere weather in the following winter by affecting the Arctic Oscillation (AO) mode of atmospheric variability. We find that the relationship between the rate of October snow advance and the AO is predominantly of opposite sign between east and west Eurasia. Periods when the SC advance is strongly related to the AO, and thus might be used for weather prediction, occur when the sign of the relationship is reversed in one of the regions.
Zachary Hoppinen, Shadi Oveisgharan, Hans-Peter Marshall, Ross Mower, Kelly Elder, and Carrie Vuyovich
The Cryosphere, 18, 575–592, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-575-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-575-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We used changes in radar echo travel time from multiple airborne flights to estimate changes in snow depths across Idaho for two winters. We compared our radar-derived retrievals to snow pits, weather stations, and a 100 m resolution numerical snow model. We had a strong Pearson correlation and root mean squared error of 10 cm relative to in situ measurements. Our retrievals also correlated well with our model, especially in regions of dry snow and low tree coverage.
Yiwen Fang, Yufei Liu, Dongyue Li, Haorui Sun, and Steven A. Margulis
The Cryosphere, 17, 5175–5195, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5175-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5175-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using newly developed snow reanalysis datasets as references, snow water storage is at high uncertainty among commonly used global products in the Andes and low-resolution products in the western United States, where snow is the key element of water resources. In addition to precipitation, elevation differences and model mechanism variances drive snow uncertainty. This work provides insights for research applying these products and generating future products in areas with limited in situ data.
Kerttu Kouki, Kari Luojus, and Aku Riihelä
The Cryosphere, 17, 5007–5026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5007-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5007-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluated snow cover properties in state-of-the-art reanalyses (ERA5 and ERA5-Land) with satellite-based datasets. Both ERA5 and ERA5-Land overestimate snow mass, whereas albedo estimates are more consistent between the datasets. Snow cover extent (SCE) is accurately described in ERA5-Land, while ERA5 shows larger SCE than the satellite-based datasets. The trends in snow mass, SCE, and albedo are mostly negative in 1982–2018, and the negative trends become more apparent when spring advances.
Diego Monteiro and Samuel Morin
The Cryosphere, 17, 3617–3660, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3617-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3617-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Beyond directly using in situ observations, often sparsely available in mountain regions, climate model simulations and so-called reanalyses are increasingly used for climate change impact studies. Here we evaluate such datasets in the European Alps from 1950 to 2020, with a focus on snow cover information and its main drivers: air temperature and precipitation. In terms of variability and trends, we identify several limitations and provide recommendations for future use of these datasets.
Leon J. Bührle, Mauro Marty, Lucie A. Eberhard, Andreas Stoffel, Elisabeth D. Hafner, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 17, 3383–3408, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3383-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3383-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Information on the snow depth distribution is crucial for numerous applications in high-mountain regions. However, only specific measurements can accurately map the present variability of snow depths within complex terrain. In this study, we show the reliable processing of images from aeroplane to large (> 100 km2) detailed and accurate snow depth maps around Davos (CH). We use these maps to describe the existing snow depth distribution, other special features and potential applications.
Xuemei Li, Xinyu Liu, Kaixin Zhao, Xu Zhang, and Lanhai Li
The Cryosphere, 17, 2437–2453, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2437-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2437-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Quantifying change in the potential snowfall phenology (PSP) is an important area of research for understanding regional climate change past, present, and future. However, few studies have focused on the PSP and its change in alpine mountainous regions. We proposed three innovative indicators to characterize the PSP and its spatial–temporal variation. Our study provides a novel approach to understanding PSP in alpine mountainous regions and can be easily extended to other snow-dominated regions.
Moritz Buchmann, Gernot Resch, Michael Begert, Stefan Brönnimann, Barbara Chimani, Wolfgang Schöner, and Christoph Marty
The Cryosphere, 17, 653–671, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-653-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-653-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Our current knowledge of spatial and temporal snow depth trends is based almost exclusively on time series of non-homogenised observational data. However, like other long-term series from observations, they are susceptible to inhomogeneities that can affect the trends and even change the sign. To assess the relevance of homogenisation for daily snow depths, we investigated its impact on trends and changes in extreme values of snow indices between 1961 and 2021 in the Swiss observation network.
Zachary S. Miller, Erich H. Peitzsch, Eric A. Sproles, Karl W. Birkeland, and Ross T. Palomaki
The Cryosphere, 16, 4907–4930, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4907-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4907-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Snow depth varies across steep, complex mountain landscapes due to interactions between dynamic natural processes. Our study of a winter time series of high-resolution snow depth maps found that spatial resolutions greater than 0.5 m do not capture the complete patterns of snow depth spatial variability at a couloir study site in the Bridger Range of Montana, USA. The results of this research have the potential to reduce uncertainty associated with snowpack and snow water resource analysis.
Victoria R. Dutch, Nick Rutter, Leanne Wake, Melody Sandells, Chris Derksen, Branden Walker, Gabriel Hould Gosselin, Oliver Sonnentag, Richard Essery, Richard Kelly, Phillip Marsh, Joshua King, and Julia Boike
The Cryosphere, 16, 4201–4222, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4201-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4201-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Measurements of the properties of the snow and soil were compared to simulations of the Community Land Model to see how well the model represents snow insulation. Simulations underestimated snow thermal conductivity and wintertime soil temperatures. We test two approaches to reduce the transfer of heat through the snowpack and bring simulated soil temperatures closer to measurements, with an alternative parameterisation of snow thermal conductivity being more appropriate.
Moritz Buchmann, John Coll, Johannes Aschauer, Michael Begert, Stefan Brönnimann, Barbara Chimani, Gernot Resch, Wolfgang Schöner, and Christoph Marty
The Cryosphere, 16, 2147–2161, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2147-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2147-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Knowledge about inhomogeneities in a data set is important for any subsequent climatological analysis. We ran three well-established homogenization methods and compared the identified break points. By only treating breaks as valid when detected by at least two out of three methods, we enhanced the robustness of our results. We found 45 breaks within 42 of 184 investigated series; of these 70 % could be explained by events recorded in the station history.
Bertrand Cluzet, Matthieu Lafaysse, César Deschamps-Berger, Matthieu Vernay, and Marie Dumont
The Cryosphere, 16, 1281–1298, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1281-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1281-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The mountainous snow cover is highly variable at all temporal and spatial scales. Snow cover models suffer from large errors, while snowpack observations are sparse. Data assimilation combines them into a better estimate of the snow cover. A major challenge is to propagate information from observed into unobserved areas. This paper presents a spatialized version of the particle filter, in which information from in situ snow depth observations is successfully used to constrain nearby simulations.
Kerttu Kouki, Petri Räisänen, Kari Luojus, Anna Luomaranta, and Aku Riihelä
The Cryosphere, 16, 1007–1030, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1007-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1007-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We analyze state-of-the-art climate models’ ability to describe snow mass and whether biases in modeled temperature or precipitation can explain the discrepancies in snow mass. In winter, biases in precipitation are the main factor affecting snow mass, while in spring, biases in temperature becomes more important, which is an expected result. However, temperature or precipitation cannot explain all snow mass discrepancies. Other factors, such as models’ structural errors, are also significant.
Achut Parajuli, Daniel F. Nadeau, François Anctil, and Marco Alves
The Cryosphere, 15, 5371–5386, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5371-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5371-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Cold content is the energy required to attain an isothermal (0 °C) state and resulting in the snow surface melt. This study focuses on determining the multi-layer cold content (30 min time steps) relying on field measurements, snow temperature profile, and empirical formulation in four distinct forest sites of Montmorency Forest, eastern Canada. We present novel research where the effect of forest structure, local topography, and meteorological conditions on cold content variability is explored.
Yufei Liu, Yiwen Fang, and Steven A. Margulis
The Cryosphere, 15, 5261–5280, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5261-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5261-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We examined the spatiotemporal distribution of stored water in the seasonal snowpack over High Mountain Asia, based on a new snow reanalysis dataset. The dataset was derived utilizing satellite-observed snow information, which spans across 18 water years, at a high spatial (~ 500 m) and temporal (daily) resolution. Snow mass and snow storage distribution over space and time are analyzed in this paper, which brings new insights into understanding the snowpack variability over this region.
Moritz Buchmann, Michael Begert, Stefan Brönnimann, and Christoph Marty
The Cryosphere, 15, 4625–4636, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4625-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4625-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the impacts of local-scale variations by analysing snow climate indicators derived from parallel snow measurements. We found the largest relative inter-pair differences for all indicators in spring and the smallest in winter. The findings serve as an important basis for our understanding of uncertainties of commonly used snow indicators and provide, in combination with break-detection methods, the groundwork in view of any homogenization efforts regarding snow time series.
Michael Matiu, Alice Crespi, Giacomo Bertoldi, Carlo Maria Carmagnola, Christoph Marty, Samuel Morin, Wolfgang Schöner, Daniele Cat Berro, Gabriele Chiogna, Ludovica De Gregorio, Sven Kotlarski, Bruno Majone, Gernot Resch, Silvia Terzago, Mauro Valt, Walter Beozzo, Paola Cianfarra, Isabelle Gouttevin, Giorgia Marcolini, Claudia Notarnicola, Marcello Petitta, Simon C. Scherrer, Ulrich Strasser, Michael Winkler, Marc Zebisch, Andrea Cicogna, Roberto Cremonini, Andrea Debernardi, Mattia Faletto, Mauro Gaddo, Lorenzo Giovannini, Luca Mercalli, Jean-Michel Soubeyroux, Andrea Sušnik, Alberto Trenti, Stefano Urbani, and Viktor Weilguni
The Cryosphere, 15, 1343–1382, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1343-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1343-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The first Alpine-wide assessment of station snow depth has been enabled by a collaborative effort of the research community which involves more than 30 partners, 6 countries, and more than 2000 stations. It shows how snow in the European Alps matches the climatic zones and gives a robust estimate of observed changes: stronger decreases in the snow season at low elevations and in spring at all elevations, however, with considerable regional differences.
Rhae Sung Kim, Sujay Kumar, Carrie Vuyovich, Paul Houser, Jessica Lundquist, Lawrence Mudryk, Michael Durand, Ana Barros, Edward J. Kim, Barton A. Forman, Ethan D. Gutmann, Melissa L. Wrzesien, Camille Garnaud, Melody Sandells, Hans-Peter Marshall, Nicoleta Cristea, Justin M. Pflug, Jeremy Johnston, Yueqian Cao, David Mocko, and Shugong Wang
The Cryosphere, 15, 771–791, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-771-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-771-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
High SWE uncertainty is observed in mountainous and forested regions, highlighting the need for high-resolution snow observations in these regions. Substantial uncertainty in snow water storage in Tundra regions and the dominance of water storage in these regions points to the need for high-accuracy snow estimation. Finally, snow measurements during the melt season are most needed at high latitudes, whereas observations at near peak snow accumulations are most beneficial over the midlatitudes.
François Tuzet, Marie Dumont, Ghislain Picard, Maxim Lamare, Didier Voisin, Pierre Nabat, Mathieu Lafaysse, Fanny Larue, Jesus Revuelto, and Laurent Arnaud
The Cryosphere, 14, 4553–4579, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4553-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4553-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a field dataset collected over 30 d from two snow seasons at a Col du Lautaret site (French Alps). The dataset compares different measurements or estimates of light-absorbing particle (LAP) concentrations in snow, highlighting a gap in the current understanding of the measurement of these quantities. An ensemble snowpack model is then evaluated for this dataset estimating that LAPs shorten each snow season by around 10 d despite contrasting meteorological conditions.
Jianwei Yang, Lingmei Jiang, Kari Luojus, Jinmei Pan, Juha Lemmetyinen, Matias Takala, and Shengli Wu
The Cryosphere, 14, 1763–1778, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1763-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1763-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
There are many challenges for accurate snow depth estimation using passive microwave data. Machine learning (ML) techniques are deemed to be powerful tools for establishing nonlinear relations between independent variables and a given target variable. In this study, we investigate the potential capability of the random forest (RF) model on snow depth estimation at temporal and spatial scales. The result indicates that the fitted RF algorithms perform better on temporal than spatial scales.
Colleen Mortimer, Lawrence Mudryk, Chris Derksen, Kari Luojus, Ross Brown, Richard Kelly, and Marco Tedesco
The Cryosphere, 14, 1579–1594, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1579-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1579-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Existing stand-alone passive microwave SWE products have markedly different climatological SWE patterns compared to reanalysis-based datasets. The AMSR-E SWE has low spatial and temporal correlations with the four reanalysis-based products evaluated and GlobSnow and perform poorly in comparisons with snow transect data from Finland, Russia, and Canada. There is better agreement with in situ data when multiple SWE products, excluding the stand-alone passive microwave SWE products, are combined.
Céline Portenier, Fabia Hüsler, Stefan Härer, and Stefan Wunderle
The Cryosphere, 14, 1409–1423, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1409-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1409-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We present a method to derive snow cover maps from freely available webcam images in the Swiss Alps. With marginal manual user input, we can transform a webcam image into a georeferenced map and therewith perform snow cover analyses with a high spatiotemporal resolution over a large area. Our evaluation has shown that webcams could not only serve as a reference for improved validation of satellite-based approaches, but also complement satellite-based snow cover retrieval.
Markus Todt, Nick Rutter, Christopher G. Fletcher, and Leanne M. Wake
The Cryosphere, 13, 3077–3091, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3077-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3077-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Vegetation is often represented by a single layer in global land models. Studies have found deficient simulation of thermal radiation beneath forest canopies when represented by single-layer vegetation. This study corrects thermal radiation in forests for a global land model using single-layer vegetation in order to assess the effect of deficient thermal radiation on snow cover and snowmelt. Results indicate that single-layer vegetation causes snow in forests to be too cold and melt too late.
David F. Hill, Elizabeth A. Burakowski, Ryan L. Crumley, Julia Keon, J. Michelle Hu, Anthony A. Arendt, Katreen Wikstrom Jones, and Gabriel J. Wolken
The Cryosphere, 13, 1767–1784, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1767-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1767-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new statistical model for converting snow depths to water equivalent. The only variables required are snow depth, day of year, and location. We use the location to look up climatological parameters such as mean winter precipitation and mean temperature difference (difference between hottest month and coldest month). The model is simple by design so that it can be applied to depth measurements anywhere, anytime. The model is shown to perform better than other widely used approaches.
Rebecca Mott, Andreas Wolf, Maximilian Kehl, Harald Kunstmann, Michael Warscher, and Thomas Grünewald
The Cryosphere, 13, 1247–1265, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1247-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1247-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The mass balance of very small glaciers is often governed by anomalous snow accumulation, winter precipitation being multiplied by snow redistribution processes, or by suppressed snow ablation driven by micrometeorological effects lowering net radiation and turbulent heat exchange. In this study we discuss the relative contribution of snow accumulation (avalanches) versus micrometeorology (katabatic flow) on the mass balance of the lowest perennial ice field of the Alps, the Ice Chapel.
Yue Zhou, Hui Wen, Jun Liu, Wei Pu, Qingcai Chen, and Xin Wang
The Cryosphere, 13, 157–175, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-157-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-157-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We first investigated the optical characteristics and potential sources of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) in seasonal snow over northwestern China. The abundance of CDOM showed regional variation. At some sites strongly influenced by local soil, the absorption of CDOM cannot be neglected compared to black carbon. We found two humic-like and one protein-like fluorophores in snow. The major sources of snow CDOM were soil, biomass burning, and anthropogenic pollution.
Benjamin J. Hatchett and Hilary G. Eisen
The Cryosphere, 13, 21–28, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-21-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-21-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We examine the timing of early season snowpack relevant to oversnow vehicle (OSV) recreation over the past 3 decades in the Lake Tahoe region (USA). Data from two independent data sources suggest that the timing of achieving sufficient snowpack has shifted later by 2 weeks. Increasing rainfall and more dry days play a role in the later onset. Adaptation strategies are provided for winter travel management planning to address negative impacts of loss of early season snowpack for OSV usage.
Deborah Verfaillie, Matthieu Lafaysse, Michel Déqué, Nicolas Eckert, Yves Lejeune, and Samuel Morin
The Cryosphere, 12, 1249–1271, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1249-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1249-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This article addresses local changes of seasonal snow and its meteorological drivers, at 1500 m altitude in the Chartreuse mountain range in the Northern French Alps, for the period 1960–2100. We use an ensemble of adjusted RCM outputs consistent with IPCC AR5 GCM outputs (RCPs 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5) and the snowpack model Crocus. Beyond scenario-based approach, global temperature levels on the order of 1.5 °C and 2 °C above preindustrial levels correspond to 25 and 32% reduction of mean snow depth.
Cited articles
Anderson, E. A.: A point energy and mass balance model of a snow cover, Tech. Rep. NWQ 19, NOAA, Office of Hydrology, National Weather Service, Silver Spring, MD, USA, https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/6392 (last access: 19 July 2023), 1976.
ARD: Winterchaos in Bayern Tausende Stromausfälle – Retter im Dauereinsatz, https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/innenpolitik/bayern-winterchaos-stromausfaelle-100.html (last access: 27 February 2024), 2023.
Arduini, G., Balsamo, G., Dutra, E., Day, J. J., Sandu, I., Boussetta, S., and Haiden, T.: Impact of a Multi-Layer Snow Scheme on Near-Surface Weather Forecasts, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 11, 4687–4710, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001725, 2019.
Aschauer, J., Michel, A., Jonas, T., and Marty, C.: An empirical model to calculate snow depth from daily snow water equivalent: SWE2HS 1.0, Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 4063–4081, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-4063-2023, 2023.
Ban, N., Schmidli, J., and Schär, C.: Evaluation of the convection-resolving regional climate modeling approach in decade-long simulations, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 7889–7907, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD021478, 2014.
Barnett, T. P., Adam, J. C., and Lettenmaier, D. P.: Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions, Nature, 438, 303–309, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04141, 2005.
Bausch, T. and Unseld, C.: Winter tourism in Germany is much more than skiing! consumer motives and implications to Alpine destination marketing, J. Vacat. Mark., 24, 203–217, https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766717691806, 2018.
Bednorz, E.: Heavy snow in Polish–German lowlands: large-scale synoptic reasons and economic impacts, Weather and Climate Extremes, 2, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2013.10.007, 2013.
Berghuijs, W. R., Harrigan, S., Molnar, P., Slater, L. J., and Kirchner, J. W.: The relative importance of different flood-generating mechanisms across Europe, Water Resour. Res., 55, 4582–4593, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR024841, 2019.
Blume-Werry, G., Kreyling, J., Laudon, H., and Milbau, A.: Short-term climate change manipulation effects do not scale up to long-term legacies: effects of an absent snow cover on boreal forest plants, J. Ecol., 104, 1638–1648, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12636, 2016.
Bocharov, G.: pyextremes – Extreme Value Analysis (EVA) in Python, https://georgebv.github.io/pyextremes/ (last access: 19 July 2023), 2022.
Boussetta, S., Balsamo, G., Arduini, G., Dutra, E., McNorton, J., Choulga, M., Agustí-Panareda, A., Beljaars, A., Wedi, N., Muñoz Sabater, J., de Rosnay, P., Sandu, I., Hadade, I., Carver, G., Mazzetti, C., Prudhomme, C., Yamazaki, D., and Zsoter, E.: ECLand: The ECMWF Land Surface Modelling System, Atmosphere, 12, 723, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12060723, 2021.
Braun, L. N.: Simulation of snowmelt-runoff in lowland and lower alpine regions of Switzerland, PhD thesis, ETH Zurich, https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-000334295, 1984.
Brienen, S., Haller, M., Brauch, J., and Früh, B.: HoKliSim-De COSMO-CLM climate model simulation data version V2022.01, DWD [data set], https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD/HOKLISIM_V2022.01, 2022.
Chen, J., Li, C., Brissette, F. P., Chen, H., Wang, M., and Essou, G. R. C.: Impacts of correcting the inter-variable correlation of climate model outputs on hydrological modeling, J. Hydrol., 560, 326–341, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.03.040, 2018.
Clark, M. P., Hendrikx, J., Slater, A. G., Kavetski, D., Anderson, B., Cullen, N. J., Kerr, T., Hreinsson, E. O., and Woods, R. A.: Representing spatial variability of snow water equivalent in hydrologic and land-surface models: A review, Water Resour. Res., 47, W07539, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011wr010745, 2011.
Coles, S.: An introduction to statistical modeling of extreme values, Springer, London, UK, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-3675-0, 2001.
Collier, E.: BAYWRF, OSFHOME [data set], https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/AQ58B, 2020.
Collier, E. and Mölg, T.: BAYWRF: a high-resolution present-day climatological atmospheric dataset for Bavaria, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 3097–3112, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3097-2020, 2020.
Coppola, E., Sobolowski, S., Pichelli, E., Raffaele, F., Ahrens, B., Anders, I., Ban, N., Bastin, S., Belda, M., Belusic, D., Caldas-Alvarez, A., Cardoso, R. M., Davolio, S., Dobler, A., Fernandez, J., Fita, L., Fumiere, Q., Giorgi, F., Goergen, K., Güttler, I., Halenka, T., Heinzeller, D., Hodnebrog, Q., Jacob, D., Kartsios, S., Katragkou, E., Kendon, E., Khodayar, S., Kunstmann, H., Knist, S., Lavín-Gullón, A., Lind, P., Lorenz, T., Maraun, D., Marelle, L., van Meijgaard, E., Milovac, J., Myhre, G., Panitz, H. J., Piazza, M., Raffa, M., Raub, T., Rockel, B., Schär, C., Sieck, K., Soares, P. M. M., Somot, S., Srnec, L., Stocchi, P., Tölle, M. H., Truhetz, H., Vautard, R., de Vries, H., and Warrach-Sagi, K.: A first-of-its-kind multi-model convection permitting ensemble for investigating convective phenomena over Europe and the Mediterranean, Clim. Dynam., 43, 3–34, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4521-8, 2020.
Croce, P., Formichi, P., Landi, F., Mercogliano, P., Bucchignani, E., Dosio, A., and Dimova, S.: The snow load in Europe and the climate change, Climate Risk Management, 20, 138–154, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2018.03.001, 2018.
Daloz, A. S., Mateling, M., L'Ecuyer, T., Kulie, M., Wood, N. B., Durand, M., Wrzesien, M., Stjern, C. W., and Dimri, A. P.: How much snow falls in the world's mountains? A first look at mountain snowfall estimates in A-train observations and reanalyses, The Cryosphere, 14, 3195–3207, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3195-2020, 2020.
Daloz, A. S., Schwingshackl, C., Mooney, P., Strada, S., Rechid, D., Davin, E. L., Katragkou, E., de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Belda, M., Halenka, T., Breil, M., Cardoso, R. M., Hoffmann, P., Lima, D. C. A., Meier, R., Soares, P. M. M., Sofiadis, G., Strandberg, G., Toelle, M. H., and Lund, M. T.: Land–atmosphere interactions in sub-polar and alpine climates in the CORDEX flagship pilot study Land Use and Climate Across Scales (LUCAS) models – Part 1: Evaluation of the snow-albedo effect, The Cryosphere, 16, 2403–2419, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2403-2022, 2022.
Daudt, R. C., Wulf, H., Hafner, E. D., Bühler, Y., Schindler, K., and Wegner, J. D.: Snow depth estimation at country-scale with high spatial and temporal resolution, ISPRS J. Photogramm., 197, 105–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2023.01.017, 2023.
DIN: DIN 1055-5, 2005-07, Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke – Teil 5: Schnee- und Eislasten, Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V., Beuth-Verlag, 24 pp., 2005.
Doll, C., Trinks, C., Sedlacek, N., Pelikan, V., Comes, T., and Schultmann, F.: Adapting rail and road networks to weather extremes: case studies for southern Germany and Austria, Nat. Hazards, 72, 63–85, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0969-3, 2014.
Doms, G., Förstner, J., Heise, E., Herzog, H. J., Mironov, D., Raschendorfer, M., Reinhardt, T., Ritter, B., Schrodin, R., Schulz, J.-P., and Vofel, G.: A Description of the Nonhydrostatic Regional COSMO-Model – Part II: Physical Parameterizations, Deutscher Wetterdienst DWD, Offenbach, 2021.
Dong C. and Menzel, L.: Recent snow cover changes over central European low mountain ranges, Hydrol. Process., 34, 321–338, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13586, 2020.
Durre, I. and Squires, M. F.: White Christmas? An Application of NOAA's 1981–2010 Daily Normals, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 96, 1853–1858, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00038.1, 2015.
Dutra, E., Balsamo, G., Viterbo, P., Miranda, P. M., Beljaars, A., Schär, C., and Elder, K.: An improved snow scheme for the ECMWF land surface model: description and offline validation, J. Hydrometeorol., 11, 899–916, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JHM1249.1, 2010.
DWD (German Weather Service): Weiße Weihnachten – eine Frage des Standortes, https://www.dwd.de/DE/wetter/thema_des_tages/2020/12/24.html (last access: 19 July 2023), 2020.
DWD (German Weather Service): Daily climate data, DWD [data set], https://opendata.dwd.de/climate_environment/CDC/observations_germany/climate/daily/kl/historical/, last access: 13 June 2023.
ECMWF (Ed.): IFS documentation Cy45r1 Operational implementation 5 June 2018 PART IV: physical processes, Shinfield Park, Reading, England, UK, 223, https://doi.org/10.21957/4whwo8jw0, 2018.
Essery, R., Morin, S., Lejeune, Y., and Ménard, C.: A comparison of 1701 snow models using observations from an alpine site, Adv. Water Resour., 55, 131–148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.07.013, 2013.
Foreman-Mackey, D., Hogg, D. W., Lang, D., and Goodman, J.: emcee: The MCMC Hammer, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac., 125, 306–312, https://doi.org/10.1086/670067, 2013.
Frei, P., Kotlarski, S., Liniger, M. A., and Schär, C.: Future snowfall in the Alps: projections based on the EURO-CORDEX regional climate models, The Cryosphere, 12, 1–24, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1-2018, 2018.
Frese, M. and Blaß, H. J.: Statistics of damages to timber structures in Germany, Eng. Struct., 33, 2969–2977, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.02.030, 2011.
Gavazov, K., Ingrisch, J., Hasibeder, R., Mills, R. T. E., Buttler, A., Gleixner, G., Pumpanen, J., and Bahn, M.: Winter ecology of a subalpine grassland: effects of snow removal on soil respiration, microbial structure and function, Sci. Total Environ., 590–591, 316–324, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.010, 2017.
Gerhold, L., Wahl, S., and Dombrowsky, W. R.: Risk perception and emergency food preparedness in Germany, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 37, 101183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101183, 2019.
Girons Lopez, M., Vis, M. J. P., Jenicek, M., Griessinger, N., and Seibert, J.: Assessing the degree of detail of temperature-based snow routines for runoff modelling in mountainous areas in central Europe, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 4441–4461, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4441-2020, 2020.
Hagen, P. and Mese, O.: Schneefälle: Wer zahlt für die Schäden?, https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/schneechaos-deutschland-versicherung-schaeden-zahlen-1.6314022 (last access: 27 February 2024), 2023.
Hall, D. K. and Riggs, G. A.: MODIS/Terra Snow Cover Daily L3 Global 0.05Deg CMG, Version 61, NASA NSIDC DAAC, Boulder, Colorado, USA [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD10C1.061, 2021.
Hammer, H. L.: Statistical models for short- and long-term forecasts of snow depth, J. Appl. Stat., 45, 1133–1156, https://doi.org/10.1080/02664763.2017.1357683, 2018.
Hanzer, F., Helfricht, K., Marke, T., and Strasser, U.: Multilevel spatiotemporal validation of snow/ice mass balance and runoff modeling in glacierized catchments, The Cryosphere, 10, 1859–1881, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1859-2016, 2016.
Hanzer, F., Förster, K., Nemec, J., and Strasser, U.: Projected cryospheric and hydrological impacts of 21st century climate change in the Ötztal Alps (Austria) simulated using a physically based approach, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1593–1614, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-1593-2018, 2018.
Harley, T. A.: Nice weather for the time of year: the British obsession with the weather, in: Weather, climate, culture, edited by: Strauss, S. and Orlove, B., Routledge, 103–120, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003103264, 2003.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., Chiara, G. D., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., Rosnay, P. de, Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
HND (Hochwassernachrichtendienst Bayern): Station München Stadt, https://www.hnd.bayern.de/schnee/donau_bis_kelheim/muenchen-stadt-10865?addhr=false&begin=25.11.2023&end=12.12.2023, last access: 27 February 2024.
Hodeck, A. and Hovemann, G.: Destination Choice In German Winter Sport Tourism: Empirical Findings, Pol. J. Sport Tour., 22, 114–117, https://doi.org/10.1515/pjst-2015-0019, 2015.
Jin, J., Gao, X., Yang, Z.-L., Bales, R. C., Sorooshian, S., Dickinson, R. E., Sun, S. F., and Wu, G. X.: Comparative Analyses of Physically Based Snowmelt Models for Climate Simulations, J. Climate, 12, 2643–2657, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<2643:CAOPBS>2.0.CO;2, 1999.
Jordan, R.: A one-dimensional temperature model for a snow cover: Technical documentation for SNTHERM 89, Tech. rep., Hanover, NH, https://hdl.handle.net/11681/11677 (last access: 19 July 2023), 1991.
Koch, F., Henkel, P., Appel, F., Schmid, L., Bach, H., Lamm, M., Prasch, M., Schweizer, J., and Mauser, W.: Retrieval of Snow Water Equivalent, Liquid Water Content, and Snow Height of Dry and Wet Snow by Combining GPS Signal Attenuation and Time Delay, Water Resour. Res., 55, 4465–4487, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR024431, 2019.
Kouki, K., Räisänen, P., Luojus, K., Luomaranta, A., and Riihelä, A.: Evaluation of Northern Hemisphere snow water equivalent in CMIP6 models during 1982–2014, The Cryosphere, 16, 1007–1030, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1007-2022, 2022.
Kouki, K., Luojus, K., and Riihelä, A.: Evaluation of snow cover properties in ERA5 and ERA5-Land with several satellite-based datasets in the Northern Hemisphere in spring 1982–2018, The Cryosphere, 17, 5007–5026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5007-2023, 2023.
Krinner, G., Derksen, C., Essery, R., Flanner, M., Hagemann, S., Clark, M., Hall, A., Rott, H., Brutel-Vuilmet, C., Kim, H., Ménard, C. B., Mudryk, L., Thackeray, C., Wang, L., Arduini, G., Balsamo, G., Bartlett, P., Boike, J., Boone, A., Chéruy, F., Colin, J., Cuntz, M., Dai, Y., Decharme, B., Derry, J., Ducharne, A., Dutra, E., Fang, X., Fierz, C., Ghattas, J., Gusev, Y., Haverd, V., Kontu, A., Lafaysse, M., Law, R., Lawrence, D., Li, W., Marke, T., Marks, D., Ménégoz, M., Nasonova, O., Nitta, T., Niwano, M., Pomeroy, J., Raleigh, M. S., Schaedler, G., Semenov, V., Smirnova, T. G., Stacke, T., Strasser, U., Svenson, S., Turkov, D., Wang, T., Wever, N., Yuan, H., Zhou, W., and Zhu, D.: ESM-SnowMIP: assessing snow models and quantifying snow-related climate feedbacks, Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 5027–5049, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-5027-2018, 2018.
Lee, W. Y., Gim, H. J., and Park, S. K.: Parameterizations of Snow Cover, Snow Albedo and Snow Density in Land Surface Models: A Comparative Review, Asia-Pac. J. Atmos. Sci., https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-023-00344-2, 2023.
Liu, L., Ma, Y., Menenti, M., Su, R., Yao, N., and Ma, W.: Improved parameterization of snow albedo in Noah coupled with Weather Research and Forecasting: applicability to snow estimates for the Tibetan Plateau, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4967–4981, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4967-2021, 2021.
Luque, A., Carrasco, A., Martín, A., and de Las Heras, A.: The impact of class imbalance in classification performance metrics based on the binary confusion matrix, Pattern Recogn., 91, 216–231, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2019.02.023, 2019.
Lüthi, S., Ban, N., Kotlarski, S., Steger, C. R., Jonas, T., and Schär, C.: Projections of Alpine Snow-Cover in a High-Resolution Climate Simulation, Atmosphere, 10, 463, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10080463, 2019.
Lynch-Stieglitz, M.: The Development and Validation of a Simple Snow Model for the GISS GCM, J. Climate, 7, 1842–1855, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1842:TDAVOA>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Mathew, J. K., Liu, M., and Bullock, D. M.: Impact of Weather on Shared Electric Scooter Utilization, in: Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC), Auckland, New Zealand, 27–30 October 2019, IEEE, 4512–4516, https://doi.org/10.1109/ITSC.2019.8917121, 2019.
Matiu, M. and Hanzer, F.: Bias adjustment and downscaling of snow cover fraction projections from regional climate models using remote sensing for the European Alps, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 3037–3054, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-3037-2022, 2022.
Matthews, B. W.: Comparison of the predicted and observed secondary structure of T4 phage lysozyme, BBA – Protein Struct., 405, 442–451, https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-2795(75)90109-9, 1975.
Meromy, L., Molotch, N. P., Link, T. E., Fassnacht, S. R., and Rice, R.: Subgrid variability of snow water equivalent at operational snow stations in the western USA, Hydrol. Process., 27, 2383–2400, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9355, 2012.
Meyer, J., Kohn, I., Stahl, K., Hakala, K., Seibert, J., and Cannon, A. J.: Effects of univariate and multivariate bias correction on hydrological impact projections in alpine catchments, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1339–1354, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1339-2019, 2019.
Monteiro, D. and Morin, S.: Multi-decadal analysis of past winter temperature, precipitation and snow cover data in the European Alps from reanalyses, climate models and observational datasets, The Cryosphere, 17, 3617–3660, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3617-2023, 2023.
Moody, E. G., King, M. D., Schaaf, C. B., Hall, D. K., and Platnick, S.: Northern Hemisphere five-year average (2000–2004) spectral albedos of surfaces in the presence of snow: Statistics computed from Terra MODIS land products, Remote Sens. Environ., 111, 337–345, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.03.026, 2007.
Mooney, P. A., Rechid, D., Davin, E. L., Katragkou, E., de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Breil, M., Cardoso, R. M., Daloz, A. S., Hoffmann, P., Lima, D. C. A., Meier, R., Soares, P. M. M., Sofiadis, G., Strada, S., Strandberg, G., Toelle, M. H., and Lund, M. T.: Land–atmosphere interactions in sub-polar and alpine climates in the CORDEX Flagship Pilot Study Land Use and Climate Across Scales (LUCAS) models – Part 2: The role of changing vegetation, The Cryosphere, 16, 1383–1397, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1383-2022, 2022.
Mortimer, C., Mudryk, L., Derksen, C., Luojus, K., Brown, R., Kelly, R., and Tedesco, M.: Evaluation of long-term Northern Hemisphere snow water equivalent products, The Cryosphere, 14, 1579–1594, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1579-2020, 2020.
Muñoz Sabater, J.: ERA5-Land hourly data from 1950 to present, Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.e2161bac, 2019.
Muñoz-Sabater, J., Dutra, E., Agustí-Panareda, A., Albergel, C., Arduini, G., Balsamo, G., Boussetta, S., Choulga, M., Harrigan, S., Hersbach, H., Martens, B., Miralles, D. G., Piles, M., Rodríguez-Fernández, N. J., Zsoter, E., Buontempo, C., and Thépaut, J.-N.: ERA5-Land: a state-of-the-art global reanalysis dataset for land applications, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 4349–4383, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4349-2021, 2021.
Musselman, K. N., Lehner, F., Ikeda, K., Clark, M. P., Prein, A. F., Liu, C., Barlage, M., and Rasmussen, R.: Projected increases and shifts in rain-on-snow flood risk over western north america, Nat. Clim. Change, 8, 808–812, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0236-4, 2018.
Niu, G.-Y. and Yang, Z.-L.: Effects of vegetation canopy processes on snow surface energy and mass balances, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D23111, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004884, 2004.
Niu, G. Y., Yang, Z. L., Mitchell, K. E., Chen, F., Ek, M. B., Barlage, M., Kumar, A., Manning, K., Niyogi, D., Rosero, E., Tewari, M., and Xia, Y.: The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP): 1. Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D12109, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015139, 2011.
Orr, H. G., Ekström, M., Charlton, M. B., Peat, K. L., and Fowler, H. J.: Using high-resolution climate change information in water management: A decision-makers' perspective. Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 379, 2195, 20200219, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2020.0219, 2021.
Pham, T. V., Steger, C., Rockel, B., Keuler, K., Kirchner, I., Mertens, M., Rieger, D., Zängl, G., and Früh, B.: ICON in Climate Limited-area Mode (ICON release version 2.6.1): a new regional climate model, Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 985–1005, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-985-2021, 2021.
Poschlod, B., Hodnebrog, Ø., Wood, R. R., Alterskjær, K., Ludwig, R., Myhre, G., and Sillmann, J.: Comparison and evaluation of statistical rainfall disaggregation and high-resolution dynamical downscaling over complex terrain, J. Hydrometeorol., 19, 1973–1982, https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-18-0132.1, 2018.
Poschlod, B., Willkofer, F., and Ludwig, R.: Impact of climate change on the hydrological regimes in Bavaria, Water, 12, 1599, https://doi.org/10.3390/w12061599, 2020a.
Poschlod, B., Zscheischler, J., Wood, R., Sillmann, J., and Ludwig, R.: Climate Change Effects on hydrometeorological compound events over Southern Norway, Weather and Climate Extremes, 28, 100253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2020.100253, 2020b.
Qi, W., Feng, L., Liu, J., and Yang, H.: Snow as an important natural reservoir for runoff and soil moisture in Northeast China, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 125, e2020JD033086, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020jd033086, 2020.
Quante, L., Willner, S. N., Middelanis, R., and Levermann, A.: Regions of intensification of extreme snowfall under future warming, Sci. Rep., 11, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95979-4, 2021.
Räisänen, J.: Snow conditions in northern Europe: the dynamics of interannual variability versus projected long-term change, The Cryosphere, 15, 1677–1696, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1677-2021, 2021.
Richter, D.: Ergebnisse methodischer Untersuchungen zur Korrektur des systematischen Meßfehlers des Hellmann-Niederschlagsmessers, Tech. Rep., Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach a. M., Germany, ISSN: 2194-5969, 1995.
Rybka, H., Haller, M., Brienen, S., Brauch, J., Früh, B., Junghänel, T., Lengfeld, K., Walter, A., and Winterrath, T.: Convection-permitting climate simulations with COSMO-CLM for Germany: Analysis of present and future daily and sub-daily extreme precipitation, Meteorol. Z., 32, 91–111, https://doi.org/10.1127/metz/2022/1147, 2022.
Saigger, M., M”olg, T., Schmid, C., and Sauter, T.: Simulating snow drift in WRF – First results and future plans of a novel module, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-12384, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-12384, 2023.
Sasai, T., Kawase, H., Kanno, Y., Yamaguchi, J., Sugimoto, S., Yamazaki, T., Sasaki, H., Fujita, M., and Iwasaki, T.: Future projection of extreme heavy snowfall events with a 5 km large ensemble regional climate simulation, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 13975–13990, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD030781, 2019.
Schaaf, C. and Wang, Z.: MODIS/Terra+Aqua BRDF/Albedo Albedo Daily L3 Global 0.05Deg CMG V061, NASA EOSDIS Land Processes DAAC [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MCD43C3.061, 2021.
Schulz, J.-P. and Vogel, G.: Improving the Processes in the Land Surface Scheme TERRA: Bare Soil Evaporation and Skin Temperature, Atmosphere, 11, 5, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11050513, 2020.
Schulz, J.-P., Vogel, G., Becker, C., Kothe, S., Rummel, U., and Ahrens, B.: Evaluation of the ground heat flux simulated by a multi-layer land surface scheme using high-quality observations at grass land and bare soil, Meteorol. Z., 25, 607–620, https://doi.org/10.1127/metz/2016/0537, 2016.
Sharma, V., Gerber, F., and Lehning, M.: Introducing CRYOWRF v1.0: multiscale atmospheric flow simulations with advanced snow cover modelling, Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 719–749, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-719-2023, 2023.
Simpkins, G.: Snow-related water woes, Nat. Clim. Change, 8, 945, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0330-7, 2018.
Skamarock, C., Klemp, B., Dudhia, J., Gill, O., Liu, Z., Berner, J., Wang, W., Powers, G., Duda, G., Barker, D., and Huang, X.-Y.: A Description of the Advanced Research WRF Model Version 4, NCAR, Boulder, Colorado, USA, https://doi.org/10.5065/1dfh-6p97, 2019.
Slatyer, R. A., Umbers, K. D. L., and Arnold, P. A.: Ecological responses to variation in seasonal snow cover, Conserv. Biol., 36, e13727, https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13727, 2022.
Sørland, S. L., Brogli, R., Pothapakula, P. K., Russo, E., Van de Walle, J., Ahrens, B., Anders, I., Bucchignani, E., Davin, E. L., Demory, M.-E., Dosio, A., Feldmann, H., Früh, B., Geyer, B., Keuler, K., Lee, D., Li, D., van Lipzig, N. P. M., Min, S.-K., Panitz, H.-J., Rockel, B., Schär, C., Steger, C., and Thiery, W.: COSMO-CLM regional climate simulations in the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) framework: a review, Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 5125–5154, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-5125-2021, 2021.
Steger, C., Kotlarski, S., Jonas, T., and Schär, C.: Alpine snow cover in a changing climate: a regional climate model perspective, Clim. Dynam., 41, 735–754, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1545-3, 2013.
Steiger, R., Scott, D., Abegg, B., Pons, M., and Aall, C.: A critical review of climate change risk for ski tourism, Curr. Issues Tour., 22, 1343–1379, https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1410110, 2017.
Strasser, U.: Modelling of the mountain snow cover in the Berchtesgaden National Park, Tech. Rep. 55, Berchtesgaden National Park, Berchtesgaden, ISBN 978-3-922325-62-8, 2008a.
Strasser, U.: Snow loads in a changing climate: new risks?, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 1–8, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-8-1-2008, 2008b.
Sun, S., Jin, J., and Xue, Y.: A simple snow-atmosphere-soil transfer (SAST) model, J. Geophys. Res., 55, 1206–1216, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-011-4328-5, 1999.
Tanniru, S. and Ramsankaran, R.: Passive Microwave Remote Sensing of Snow Depth: Techniques, Challenges and Future Directions, Remote Sens.-Basel, 15, 1052, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15041052, 2023.
Taszarek, M., Kendzierski, S., and Pilguj, N.: Hazardous weather affecting European airports: Climatological estimates of situations with limited visibility, thunderstorm, low-level wind shear and snowfall from ERA5, Weather and Climate Extremes, 28, 100243, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2020.100243, 2020.
Tomasi, E., Giovannini, L., Zardi, D., and de Franceschi, M.: Optimization of Noah and Noah_MP WRF land surface schemes in snow-melting conditions over complex terrain, Mon. Weather Rev., 145, 4727–4745, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-16-0408.1, 2017.
Trinks, C., Hiete, M., Comes, T., and Schultmann, F.: Extreme weather events and road and rail transportation in Germany, Int. J. Emerg. Manag., 8, 207–227, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEM.2012.047525, 2012.
Tsang, L., Durand, M., Derksen, C., Barros, A. P., Kang, D.-H., Lievens, H., Marshall, H.-P., Zhu, J., Johnson, J., King, J., Lemmetyinen, J., Sandells, M., Rutter, N., Siqueira, P., Nolin, A., Osmanoglu, B., Vuyovich, C., Kim, E., Taylor, D., Merkouriadi, I., Brucker, L., Navari, M., Dumont, M., Kelly, R., Kim, R. S., Liao, T.-H., Borah, F., and Xu, X.: Review article: Global monitoring of snow water equivalent using high-frequency radar remote sensing, The Cryosphere, 16, 3531–3573, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3531-2022, 2022.
Vassiljev, P., Timo, P., Kull, Ai., Külvik, M., Bell, S., Kull, An., and Mander, Ü.: Forest landscape assessment for cross country skiing in declining snow conditions: The case of Haanja Upland, Estonia, Balt. For., 16, 280–295, 2010.
Verseghy, D. L.: Class – A Canadian land surface scheme for GCMS. I. Soil model, Int. J. Climatol., 11, 111–133, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370110202, 1991.
Vionnet, V., Marsh, C. B., Menounos, B., Gascoin, S., Wayand, N. E., Shea, J., Mukherjee, K., and Pomeroy, J. W.: Multi-scale snowdrift-permitting modelling of mountain snowpack, The Cryosphere, 15, 743–769, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-743-2021, 2021.
Warren, S. G.: Optical properties of ice and snow, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 377, 20180161, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2018.0161, 2019.
Warscher, M., Wagner, S., Marke, T., Laux, P., Smiatek, G., Strasser, U., and Kunstmann, H.: A 5 km Resolution Regional Climate Simulation for Central Europe: Performance in High Mountain Areas and Seasonal, Regional and Elevation-Dependent Variations, Atmosphere, 10, 682, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10110682, 2019.
Warscher, M., Hanzer, F., Becker, C., and Strasser, U.: Monitoring snow processes in the Ötztal Alps (Austria) and development of an open source snow model framework, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-9101, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-9101, 2021.
Winter, K. J. P. M., Kotlarski, S., Scherrer, S. C., and Schär, C.: The Alpine snow-albedo feedback in regional climate models, Clim. Dynam., 48, 1109–1124, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3130-7, 2017.
Witting, M. and Schmude, J.: Impacts of climate and demographic change on future skier demand and its economic consequences – Evidence from a ski resort in the German alps, J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour., 26, 50–60, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2019.03.002, 2019.
Witting, M., Bischof, M., and Schmude, J.: Behavioural change or “business as usual”? Characterising the reaction behaviour of winter (sport) tourists to climate change in two German destinations, Int. J. Tour. Res., 23, 110–122, https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2399, 2021.
Xue, Y., Sun, S., Kahan, D. S., and Jiao, Y.: Impact of parameterizations in snow physics and interface processes on the simulation of snow cover and runoff at several cold region sites, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8859, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD003174, 2003.
Yang, H., Xie, K., Ozbay, K., Ma, Y., and Wang, Z.: Use of Deep Learning to Predict Daily Usage of Bike Sharing Systems, Transp. Res. Record, 2672, 92–102, https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198118801354, 2018.
Short summary
Information about snow depth is important within climate research but also many other sectors, such as tourism, mobility, civil engineering, and ecology. Climate models often feature a spatial resolution which is too coarse to investigate snow depth. Here, we analyse high-resolution simulations and identify added value compared to a coarser-resolution state-of-the-art product. Also, daily snow depth extremes are well reproduced by two models.
Information about snow depth is important within climate research but also many other sectors,...
