Articles | Volume 5, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-631-2011
© Author(s) 2011. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-631-2011
© Author(s) 2011. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
19 Aug 2011
Research article |
| 19 Aug 2011
Vertical profile of the specific surface area and density of the snow at Dome C and on a transect to Dumont D'Urville, Antarctica – albedo calculations and comparison to remote sensing products
J.-C. Gallet
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
F. Domine
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
L. Arnaud
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
G. Picard
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
J. Savarino
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
CNRS-INSU – Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, UMR5183, 54 rue Moliere, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères cedex, France
Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France
Related subject area
Snow Physics
Multiscale modeling of heat and mass transfer in dry snow: influence of the condensation coefficient and comparison with experiments
Wind tunnel experiments to quantify the effect of aeolian snow transport on the surface snow microstructure
Spatial variation in the specific surface area of surface snow measured along the traverse route from the coast to Dome Fuji, Antarctica, during austral summer
Greenland's firn responds more to warming than to cooling
Microstructure-based simulations of the viscous densification of snow and firn
A rigorous approach to the specific surface area evolution in snow during temperature gradient metamorphism
A microstructure-based parameterization of the effective anisotropic elasticity tensor of snow, firn, and bubbly ice
Spatial distribution of vertical density and microstructure profiles in near-surface firn around Dome Fuji, Antarctica
Seismic attenuation in Antarctic firn
Temporospatial variability of snow's thermal conductivity on Arctic sea ice
Heterogeneous grain growth and vertical mass transfer within a snow layer under a temperature gradient
Impact of the sampling procedure on the specific surface area of snow measurements with the IceCube
Wind conditions for snow cornice formation in a wind tunnel
Stochastic analysis of micro-cone penetration tests in snow
A generalized photon-tracking approach to simulate spectral snow albedo and transmittance using X-ray microtomography and geometric optics
Grain-size evolution controls the accumulation dependence of modelled firn thickness
Coherent backscatter enhancement in bistatic Ku- and X-band radar observations of dry snow
Effect of snowfall on changes in relative seismic velocity measured by ambient noise correlation
Orientation selective grain sublimation–deposition in snow under temperature gradient metamorphism observed with diffraction contrast tomography
Recent observations of superimposed ice and snow ice on sea ice in the northwestern Weddell Sea
Experimental and model-based investigation of the links between snow bidirectional reflectance and snow microstructure
Impact of water vapor diffusion and latent heat on the effective thermal conductivity of snow
Enhancement of snow albedo reduction and radiative forcing due to coated black carbon in snow
An exploratory modelling study of perennial firn aquifers in the Antarctic Peninsula for the period 1979–2016
Macroscopic water vapor diffusion is not enhanced in snow
Snow albedo sensitivity to macroscopic surface roughness using a new ray-tracing model
A model for French-press experiments of dry snow compaction
Identification of blowing snow particles in images from a Multi-Angle Snowflake Camera
Modeling snow slab avalanches caused by weak-layer failure – Part 1: Slabs on compliant and collapsible weak layers
Modeling snow slab avalanches caused by weak-layer failure – Part 2: Coupled mixed-mode criterion for skier-triggered anticracks
Modeling the evolution of the structural anisotropy of snow
Motion of dust particles in dry snow under temperature gradient metamorphism
Influence of light-absorbing particles on snow spectral irradiance profiles
Thermal conductivity of firn at Lomonosovfonna, Svalbard, derived from subsurface temperature measurements
Saharan dust events in the European Alps: role in snowmelt and geochemical characterization
On the suitability of the Thorpe–Mason model for calculating sublimation of saltating snow
The influence of layering and barometric pumping on firn air transport in a 2-D model
Surface formation, preservation, and history of low-porosity crusts at the WAIS Divide site, West Antarctica
The significance of vertical moisture diffusion on drifting snow sublimation near snow surface
Comparison of different methods to retrieve optical-equivalent snow grain size in central Antarctica
A multilayer physically based snowpack model simulating direct and indirect radiative impacts of light-absorbing impurities in snow
Experimental observation of transient δ18O interaction between snow and advective airflow under various temperature gradient conditions
A multiphysical ensemble system of numerical snow modelling
Process-level model evaluation: a snow and heat transfer metric
Near-surface snow particle dynamics from particle tracking velocimetry and turbulence measurements during alpine blowing snow storms
Relating optical and microwave grain metrics of snow: the relevance of grain shape
Refinement of the ice absorption spectrum in the visible using radiance profile measurements in Antarctic snow
Anisotropy of seasonal snow measured by polarimetric phase differences in radar time series
Sensitivity of snow density and specific surface area measured by microtomography to different image processing algorithms
Metamorphism during temperature gradient with undersaturated advective airflow in a snow sample
Lisa Bouvet, Neige Calonne, Frédéric Flin, and Christian Geindreau
The Cryosphere, 18, 4285–4313, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4285-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4285-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Four different macroscopic heat and mass transfer models have been derived for a large range of condensation coefficient values by an upscaling method. A comprehensive evaluation of the models is presented based on experimental datasets and numerical examples. The models reproduce the trend of experimental temperature and density profiles but underestimate the magnitude of the processes. Possible causes of these discrepancies and potential improvements for the models are suggested.
Benjamin Walter, Hagen Weigel, Sonja Wahl, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 18, 3633–3652, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3633-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3633-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The topmost layer of a snowpack forms the interface to the atmosphere and is critical for the reflectance of solar radiation and avalanche formation. The effect of wind on the surface snow microstructure during precipitation events is poorly understood and quantified. We performed controlled lab experiments in a ring wind tunnel to systematically quantify the snow microstructure for different wind speeds, temperatures and precipitation intensities and to identify the relevant processes.
Ryo Inoue, Teruo Aoki, Shuji Fujita, Shun Tsutaki, Hideaki Motoyama, Fumio Nakazawa, and Kenji Kawamura
The Cryosphere, 18, 3513–3531, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3513-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3513-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We measured the snow specific surface area (SSA) at ~2150 surfaces between the coast near Syowa Station and Dome Fuji, East Antarctica, in summer 2021–2022. The observed SSA shows no elevation dependence between 15 and 500 km from the coast and increases toward the dome area beyond the range. SSA varies depending on surface morphologies and meteorological events. The spatial variation of SSA can be explained by snow metamorphism, snowfall frequency, and wind-driven inhibition of snow deposition.
Megan Thompson-Munson, Jennifer E. Kay, and Bradley R. Markle
The Cryosphere, 18, 3333–3350, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3333-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3333-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The upper layers of the Greenland Ice Sheet are absorbent and can store meltwater that would otherwise flow into the ocean and raise sea level. The amount of meltwater that the ice sheet can store changes when the air temperature changes. We use a model to show that warming and cooling have opposite but unequal effects. Warming has a stronger effect than cooling, which highlights the vulnerability of the Greenland Ice Sheet to modern climate change.
Kévin Fourteau, Johannes Freitag, Mika Malinen, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 18, 2831–2846, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2831-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2831-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the settling of snow under its own weight has applications from avalanche forecasts to ice core interpretations. We study how this settling can be modeled using 3D images of the internal structure of snow and ice deformation mechanics. We found that classical ice mechanics, as used, for instance, in glacier flow, explain the compaction of dense polar snow but not that of lighter seasonal snow. How, exactly, the ice deforms during light snow compaction thus remains an open question.
Anna Braun, Kévin Fourteau, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 18, 1653–1668, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1653-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1653-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The specific surface of snow dictates key physical properties and continuously evolves in natural snowpacks. This is referred to as metamorphism. This work develops a rigorous physical model for this evolution, which is able to reproduce X-ray tomography measurements without using unphysical tuning parameters. Our results emphasize that snow crystal growth at the micrometer scale ultimately controls the pace of metamorphism.
Kavitha Sundu, Johannes Freitag, Kévin Fourteau, and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 18, 1579–1596, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1579-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1579-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ice crystals often show a rod-like, vertical orientation in snow and firn; they are said to be anisotropic. The stiffness in the vertical direction therefore differs from the horizontal, which, for example, impacts the propagation of seismic waves. To quantify this anisotropy, we conducted finite-element simulations of 391 snow, firn, and ice core microstructures obtained from X-ray tomography. We then derived a parameterization that may be employed for advanced seismic studies in polar regions.
Ryo Inoue, Shuji Fujita, Kenji Kawamura, Ikumi Oyabu, Fumio Nakazawa, Hideaki Motoyama, and Teruo Aoki
The Cryosphere, 18, 425–449, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-425-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-425-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We measured the density, microstructural anisotropy, and specific surface area (SSA) of six firn cores collected within 60 km of Dome Fuji, Antarctica. We found a lack of significant density increase, development of vertically elongated microstructures, and a rapid decrease in SSA in the top few meters due to the metamorphism driven by water vapor transport under a temperature gradient. We highlight the significant spatial variability in the properties, which depends on the accumulation rate.
Stefano Picotti, José M. Carcione, and Mauro Pavan
The Cryosphere, 18, 169–186, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-169-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-169-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A physical explanation of the seismic attenuation in the polar snow and ice masses is essential to gaining insight into the ice sheet and deeper geological formations. We estimate the P- and S-wave attenuation profiles of the Whillans Ice Stream from the spectral analysis of three-component active-source seismic data. The firn and ice quality factors are then modeled using a rock-physics theory that combines White's mesoscopic attenuation theory of interlayer flow with that of Biot/squirt flow.
Amy R. Macfarlane, Henning Löwe, Lucille Gimenes, David N. Wagner, Ruzica Dadic, Rafael Ottersberg, Stefan Hämmerle, and Martin Schneebeli
The Cryosphere, 17, 5417–5434, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5417-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5417-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Snow acts as an insulating blanket on Arctic sea ice, keeping the underlying ice "warm", relative to the atmosphere. Knowing the snow's thermal conductivity is essential for understanding winter ice growth. During the MOSAiC expedition, we measured the thermal conductivity of snow. We found spatial and vertical variability to overpower any temporal variability or dependency on underlying ice type and the thermal resistance to be directly influenced by snow height.
Lisa Bouvet, Neige Calonne, Frédéric Flin, and Christian Geindreau
The Cryosphere, 17, 3553–3573, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3553-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3553-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents two new experiments of temperature gradient metamorphism in a snow layer using tomographic time series and focusing on the vertical extent. The results highlight two little known phenomena: the development of morphological vertical heterogeneities from an initial uniform layer, which is attributed to the temperature range and the vapor pressure distribution, and the quantification of the mass loss at the base caused by the vertical vapor fluxes and the dry lower boundary.
Julia Martin and Martin Schneebeli
The Cryosphere, 17, 1723–1734, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1723-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1723-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The grain size of snow determines how light is reflected and other physical properties. The IceCube measures snow grain size at the specific near-infrared wavelength of 1320 nm. In our study, the preparation of snow samples for the IceCube creates a thin layer of small particles. Comparisons of the grain size with computed tomography, particle counting and numerical simulation confirm the aforementioned observation. We conclude that measurements at this wavelength underestimate the grain size.
Hongxiang Yu, Guang Li, Benjamin Walter, Michael Lehning, Jie Zhang, and Ning Huang
The Cryosphere, 17, 639–651, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-639-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-639-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Snow cornices lead to the potential risk of causing snow avalanche hazards, which are still unknown so far. We carried out a wind tunnel experiment in a cold lab to investigate the environmental conditions for snow cornice accretion recorded by a camera. The length growth rate of the cornices reaches a maximum for wind speeds approximately 40 % higher than the threshold wind speed. Experimental results improve our understanding of the cornice formation process.
Pyei Phyo Lin, Isabel Peinke, Pascal Hagenmuller, Matthias Wächter, M. Reza Rahimi Tabar, and Joachim Peinke
The Cryosphere, 16, 4811–4822, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4811-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4811-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Characterization of layers of snowpack with highly resolved micro-cone penetration tests leads to detailed fluctuating signals. We used advanced stochastic analysis to differentiate snow types by interpreting the signals as a mixture of continuous and discontinuous random fluctuations. These two types of fluctuation seem to correspond to different mechanisms of drag force generation during the experiments. The proposed methodology provides new insights into the characterization of snow layers.
Theodore Letcher, Julie Parno, Zoe Courville, Lauren Farnsworth, and Jason Olivier
The Cryosphere, 16, 4343–4361, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4343-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4343-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a radiative transfer model that uses ray tracing to determine optical properties from computer-generated 3D renderings of snow resolved at the microscale and to simulate snow spectral reflection and transmission for visible and near-infrared light. We expand ray-tracing techniques applied to sub-1 cm3 snow samples to model an entire snowpack column. The model is able to reproduce known snow surface optical properties, and simulations compare well against field observations.
Jonathan Kingslake, Robert Skarbek, Elizabeth Case, and Christine McCarthy
The Cryosphere, 16, 3413–3430, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3413-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3413-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Firn is snow that has persisted for at least 1 full year on the surface of a glacier or ice sheet. It is an intermediate substance between snow and glacial ice. Firn compacts into glacial ice due to the weight of overlying snow and firn. The rate at which it compacts and the rate at which it is buried control how thick the firn layer is. We explore how this thickness depends on the rate of snow fall and how this dependence is controlled by the size of snow grains at the ice sheet surface.
Marcel Stefko, Silvan Leinss, Othmar Frey, and Irena Hajnsek
The Cryosphere, 16, 2859–2879, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2859-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2859-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The coherent backscatter opposition effect can enhance the intensity of radar backscatter from dry snow by up to a factor of 2. Despite widespread use of radar backscatter data by snow scientists, this effect has received notably little attention. For the first time, we characterize this effect for the Earth's snow cover with bistatic radar experiments from ground and from space. We are also able to retrieve scattering and absorbing lengths of snow at Ku- and X-band frequencies.
Antoine Guillemot, Alec van Herwijnen, Eric Larose, Stephanie Mayer, and Laurent Baillet
The Cryosphere, 15, 5805–5817, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5805-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5805-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Ambient noise correlation is a broadly used method in seismology to monitor tiny changes in subsurface properties. Some environmental forcings may influence this method, including snow. During one winter season, we studied this snow effect on seismic velocity of the medium, recorded by a pair of seismic sensors. We detected and modeled a measurable effect during early snowfalls: the fresh new snow layer modifies rigidity and density of the medium, thus decreasing the recorded seismic velocity.
Rémi Granger, Frédéric Flin, Wolfgang Ludwig, Ismail Hammad, and Christian Geindreau
The Cryosphere, 15, 4381–4398, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4381-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4381-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In this study on temperature gradient metamorphism in snow, we investigate the hypothesis that there exists a favourable crystal orientation relative to the temperature gradient. We measured crystallographic orientations of the grains and their microstructural evolution during metamorphism using in situ time-lapse diffraction contrast tomography. Faceted crystals appear during the evolution, and we observe higher sublimation–deposition rates for grains with their c axis in the horizontal plane.
Stefanie Arndt, Christian Haas, Hanno Meyer, Ilka Peeken, and Thomas Krumpen
The Cryosphere, 15, 4165–4178, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4165-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4165-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We present here snow and ice core data from the northwestern Weddell Sea in late austral summer 2019, which allow insights into possible reasons for the recent low summer sea ice extent in the Weddell Sea. We suggest that the fraction of superimposed ice and snow ice can be used here as a sensitive indicator. However, snow and ice properties were not exceptional, suggesting that the summer surface energy balance and related seasonal transition of snow properties have changed little in the past.
Marie Dumont, Frederic Flin, Aleksey Malinka, Olivier Brissaud, Pascal Hagenmuller, Philippe Lapalus, Bernard Lesaffre, Anne Dufour, Neige Calonne, Sabine Rolland du Roscoat, and Edward Ando
The Cryosphere, 15, 3921–3948, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3921-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3921-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The role of snow microstructure in snow optical properties is only partially understood despite the importance of snow optical properties for the Earth system. We present a dataset combining bidirectional reflectance measurements and 3D images of snow. We show that the snow reflectance is adequately simulated using the distribution of the ice chord lengths in the snow microstructure and that the impact of the morphological type of snow is especially important when ice is highly absorptive.
Kévin Fourteau, Florent Domine, and Pascal Hagenmuller
The Cryosphere, 15, 2739–2755, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2739-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2739-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The thermal conductivity of snow is an important physical property governing the thermal regime of a snowpack and its substrate. We show that it strongly depends on the kinetics of water vapor sublimation and that previous experimental data suggest a rather fast kinetics. In such a case, neglecting water vapor leads to an underestimation of thermal conductivity by up to 50 % for light snow. Moreover, the diffusivity of water vapor in snow is then directly related to the thermal conductivity.
Wei Pu, Tenglong Shi, Jiecan Cui, Yang Chen, Yue Zhou, and Xin Wang
The Cryosphere, 15, 2255–2272, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2255-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2255-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We have explicitly resolved optical properties of coated BC in snow for explaining complex enhancement of snow albedo reduction due to coating effect in real environments. The parameterizations are developed for climate models to improve the understanding of BC in snow on global climate. We demonstrated that the contribution of BC coating effect to snow light absorption has exceeded dust over north China and will significantly contribute to the retreat of Arctic sea ice and Tibetan glaciers.
J. Melchior van Wessem, Christian R. Steger, Nander Wever, and Michiel R. van den Broeke
The Cryosphere, 15, 695–714, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-695-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-695-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents the first modelled estimates of perennial firn aquifers (PFAs) in Antarctica. PFAs are subsurface meltwater bodies that do not refreeze in winter due to the isolating effects of the snow they are buried underneath. They were first identified in Greenland, but conditions for their existence are also present in the Antarctic Peninsula. These PFAs can have important effects on meltwater retention, ice shelf stability, and, consequently, sea level rise.
Kévin Fourteau, Florent Domine, and Pascal Hagenmuller
The Cryosphere, 15, 389–406, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-389-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-389-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
There has been a long controversy to determine whether the effective diffusion coefficient of water vapor in snow is superior to that in free air. Using theory and numerical modeling, we show that while water vapor diffuses more than inert gases thanks to its interaction with the ice, the effective diffusion coefficient of water vapor in snow remains inferior to that in free air. This suggests that other transport mechanisms are responsible for the large vapor fluxes observed in some snowpacks.
Fanny Larue, Ghislain Picard, Laurent Arnaud, Inès Ollivier, Clément Delcourt, Maxim Lamare, François Tuzet, Jesus Revuelto, and Marie Dumont
The Cryosphere, 14, 1651–1672, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1651-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1651-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The effect of surface roughness on snow albedo is often overlooked,
although a small change in albedo may strongly affect the surface energy
budget. By carving artificial roughness in an initially smooth snowpack,
we highlight albedo reductions of 0.03–0.04 at 700 nm and 0.06–0.10 at 1000 nm. A model using photon transport is developed to compute albedo considering roughness and applied to understand the impact of roughness as a function of snow properties and illumination conditions.
Colin R. Meyer, Kaitlin M. Keegan, Ian Baker, and Robert L. Hawley
The Cryosphere, 14, 1449–1458, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1449-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1449-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We describe snow compaction laboratory data with a new mathematical model. Using a compression device that is similar to a French press with snow instead of coffee grounds, Wang and Baker (2013) compacted numerous snow samples of different densities at a constant velocity to determine the force required for snow compaction. Our mathematical model for compaction includes airflow through snow and predicts the required force, in agreement with the experimental data.
Mathieu Schaer, Christophe Praz, and Alexis Berne
The Cryosphere, 14, 367–384, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-367-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-367-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Wind and precipitation often occur together, making the distinction between particles coming from the atmosphere and those blown by the wind difficult. This is however a crucial task to accurately close the surface mass balance. We propose an algorithm based on Gaussian mixture models to separate blowing snow and precipitation in images collected by a Multi-Angle Snowflake Camera (MASC). The algorithm is trained and (positively) evaluated using data collected in the Swiss Alps and in Antarctica.
Philipp L. Rosendahl and Philipp Weißgraeber
The Cryosphere, 14, 115–130, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-115-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-115-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Dry-snow slab avalanche release is preceded by a fracture process within the snowpack. Recognizing weak layer collapse as an integral part of the fracture process is crucial and explains phenomena such as whumpf sounds and remote triggering of avalanches from low-angle terrain. In this first part of the two-part work we propose a novel closed-form analytical model for a snowpack that provides a highly efficient and precise analysis of the mechanical response of a loaded snowpack.
Philipp L. Rosendahl and Philipp Weißgraeber
The Cryosphere, 14, 131–145, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-131-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-131-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Dry-snow slab avalanche release is preceded by a fracture process within the snowpack. Recognizing weak layer collapse as an integral part of the fracture process is crucial and explains phenomena such as whumpf sounds and remote triggering of avalanches from low-angle terrain. In this second part of the two-part work we propose a novel mixed-mode coupled stress and energy failure criterion for nucleation of weak layer failure due to external loading of the snowpack.
Silvan Leinss, Henning Löwe, Martin Proksch, and Anna Kontu
The Cryosphere, 14, 51–75, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-51-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-51-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The anisotropy of the snow microstructure, given by horizontally aligned ice crystals and vertically interlinked crystal chains, is a key quantity to understand mechanical, dielectric, and thermodynamical properties of snow. We present a model which describes the temporal evolution of the anisotropy. The model is driven by snow temperature, temperature gradient, and the strain rate. The model is calibrated by polarimetric radar data (CPD) and validated by computer tomographic 3-D snow images.
Pascal Hagenmuller, Frederic Flin, Marie Dumont, François Tuzet, Isabel Peinke, Philippe Lapalus, Anne Dufour, Jacques Roulle, Laurent Pézard, Didier Voisin, Edward Ando, Sabine Rolland du Roscoat, and Pascal Charrier
The Cryosphere, 13, 2345–2359, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2345-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2345-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Light–absorbing particles (LAPs, e.g. dust or black carbon) in snow are a potent climate forcing agent. Their presence darkens the snow surface and leads to higher solar energy absorption. Several studies have quantified this radiative impact by assuming that LAPs were motionless in dry snow, without any clear evidence of this assumption. Using time–lapse X–ray tomography, we show that temperature gradient metamorphism of snow induces downward motion of LAPs, leading to self–cleaning of snow.
Francois Tuzet, Marie Dumont, Laurent Arnaud, Didier Voisin, Maxim Lamare, Fanny Larue, Jesus Revuelto, and Ghislain Picard
The Cryosphere, 13, 2169–2187, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2169-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2169-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Here we present a novel method to estimate the impurity content (e.g. black carbon or mineral dust) in Alpine snow based on measurements of light extinction profiles. This method is proposed as an alternative to chemical measurements, allowing rapid retrievals of vertical concentrations of impurities in the snowpack. In addition, the results provide a better understanding of the impact of impurities on visible light extinction in snow.
Sergey Marchenko, Gong Cheng, Per Lötstedt, Veijo Pohjola, Rickard Pettersson, Ward van Pelt, and Carleen Reijmer
The Cryosphere, 13, 1843–1859, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1843-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1843-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Thermal conductivity (k) of firn at Lomonosovfonna, Svalbard, is estimated using measured temperature evolution and density. The optimized k values (0.2–1.6 W (m K)−1) increase downwards and over time and are most sensitive to systematic errors in measured temperature values and their depths, particularly in the lower part of the profile. Compared to the density-based parameterizations, derived k values are consistently larger, suggesting a faster conductive heat exchange in firn.
Biagio Di Mauro, Roberto Garzonio, Micol Rossini, Gianluca Filippa, Paolo Pogliotti, Marta Galvagno, Umberto Morra di Cella, Mirco Migliavacca, Giovanni Baccolo, Massimiliano Clemenza, Barbara Delmonte, Valter Maggi, Marie Dumont, François Tuzet, Matthieu Lafaysse, Samuel Morin, Edoardo Cremonese, and Roberto Colombo
The Cryosphere, 13, 1147–1165, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1147-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1147-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The snow albedo reduction due to dust from arid regions alters the melting dynamics of the snowpack, resulting in earlier snowmelt. We estimate up to 38 days of anticipated snow disappearance for a season that was characterized by a strong dust deposition event. This process has a series of further impacts. For example, earlier snowmelts may alter the hydrological cycle in the Alps, induce higher sensitivity to late summer drought, and finally impact vegetation and animal phenology.
Varun Sharma, Francesco Comola, and Michael Lehning
The Cryosphere, 12, 3499–3509, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3499-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3499-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The Thorpe-Mason (TM) model describes how an ice grain sublimates during aeolian transport. We revisit this classic model using simple numerical experiments and discover that for many common scenarios, the model is likely to underestimate the amount of ice loss. Extending this result to drifting and blowing snow using high-resolution turbulent flow simulations, the study shows that current estimates for ice loss due to sublimation in regions such as Antarctica need to be significantly updated.
Benjamin Birner, Christo Buizert, Till J. W. Wagner, and Jeffrey P. Severinghaus
The Cryosphere, 12, 2021–2037, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2021-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2021-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Ancient air enclosed in bubbles of the Antarctic ice sheet is a key source of information about the Earth's past climate. However, a range of physical processes in the snow layer atop an ice sheet may change the trapped air's chemical composition before it is occluded in the ice. We developed the first detailed 2-D computer simulation of these processes and found a new method to improve the reconstruction of past climate from air in ice cores bubbles.
John M. Fegyveresi, Richard B. Alley, Atsuhiro Muto, Anaïs J. Orsi, and Matthew K. Spencer
The Cryosphere, 12, 325–341, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-325-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-325-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Observations at the WAIS Divide site in West Antarctica show that near-surface snow is strongly altered by weather-related processes, such as strong winds and temperature fluctuations, producing features that are recognizable within the WDC06A ice core. Specifically, over 10 000 prominent crusts were observed in the upper 560 m of the core. We show that these crusts develop more often in summers, during relatively low-wind, low-humidity, clear-sky periods with intense daytime sunshine.
Ning Huang and Guanglei Shi
The Cryosphere, 11, 3011–3021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-3011-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-3011-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Snow is an important part of the cryosphere, and blowing snow sublimation is an important method to change the snow distribution. However, in the previous studies blowing snow sublimation near surface was ignored. Herein, we built a blowing snow sublimation model to study the sublimation in near-surface region. The results showed that the mass of snow sublimation near surface accounted for even more than half of the total. Therefore, blowing snow sublimation near surface cannot be neglected.
Tim Carlsen, Gerit Birnbaum, André Ehrlich, Johannes Freitag, Georg Heygster, Larysa Istomina, Sepp Kipfstuhl, Anaïs Orsi, Michael Schäfer, and Manfred Wendisch
The Cryosphere, 11, 2727–2741, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2727-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2727-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The optical size of snow grains (ropt) affects the reflectivity of snow surfaces and thus the local surface energy budget in particular in polar regions. The temporal evolution of ropt retrieved from ground-based, airborne, and spaceborne remote sensing could reproduce optical in situ measurements for a 2-month period in central Antarctica (2013/14). The presented validation study provided a unique testbed for retrievals of ropt under Antarctic conditions where in situ data are scarce.
Francois Tuzet, Marie Dumont, Matthieu Lafaysse, Ghislain Picard, Laurent Arnaud, Didier Voisin, Yves Lejeune, Luc Charrois, Pierre Nabat, and Samuel Morin
The Cryosphere, 11, 2633–2653, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2633-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2633-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Light-absorbing impurities deposited on snow, such as soot or dust, strongly modify its evolution. We implemented impurity deposition and evolution in a detailed snowpack model, thereby expanding the reach of such models into addressing the subtle interplays between snow physics and impurities' optical properties. Model results were evaluated based on innovative field observations at an Alpine site. This allows future investigations in the fields of climate, hydrology and avalanche prediction.
Pirmin Philipp Ebner, Hans Christian Steen-Larsen, Barbara Stenni, Martin Schneebeli, and Aldo Steinfeld
The Cryosphere, 11, 1733–1743, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1733-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1733-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Stable water isotopes (δ18O) obtained from snow and ice samples from polar regions are used to reconstruct past climate variability. We present an experimental study on the effect on the snow isotopic composition by airflow through a snowpack in controlled laboratory conditions. The disequilibrium between snow and vapor isotopes changed the isotopic content of the snow. These measurements suggest that metamorphism and its history affect the snow isotopic composition.
Matthieu Lafaysse, Bertrand Cluzet, Marie Dumont, Yves Lejeune, Vincent Vionnet, and Samuel Morin
The Cryosphere, 11, 1173–1198, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1173-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1173-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Physically based multilayer snowpack models suffer from various modelling errors. To represent these errors, we built the new multiphysical ensemble system ESCROC by implementing new representations of different physical processes in a coupled multilayer ground/snowpack model. This system is a promising tool to integrate snow modelling errors in ensemble forecasting and ensemble assimilation systems in support of avalanche hazard forecasting and other snowpack modelling applications.
Andrew G. Slater, David M. Lawrence, and Charles D. Koven
The Cryosphere, 11, 989–996, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-989-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-989-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This work defines a metric for evaluation of a specific model snow process, namely, heat transfer through snow into soil. Heat transfer through snow regulates the difference in air temperature versus soil temperature. Accurate representation of the snow heat transfer process is critically important for accurate representation of the current and future state of permafrost. Utilizing this metric, we can clearly identify models that can and cannot reasonably represent snow heat transfer.
Nikolas O. Aksamit and John W. Pomeroy
The Cryosphere, 10, 3043–3062, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-3043-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-3043-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The first implementation of particle tracking velocimetry in outdoor alpine blowing snow has both provided new insight on intermittent snow particle transport initiation and entrainment in the dense near-surface "creep" layer whilst also confirming some wind tunnel observations. Environmental PTV has shown to be a viable avenue for furthering our understanding of the coupling of the atmospheric boundary layer turbulence and blowing snow transport.
Quirine Krol and Henning Löwe
The Cryosphere, 10, 2847–2863, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2847-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2847-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Optical and microwave modelling of snow involve different metrics of "grain size" and existing, empirical relations between them are subject to considerable scatter. We introduce two objectively defined metrics of grain shape, derived from micro-computed tomography images, that lead to improved statistical models between the different grain metrics. Our results allow to assess the relevance of grain shape in both fields on common grounds.
Ghislain Picard, Quentin Libois, and Laurent Arnaud
The Cryosphere, 10, 2655–2672, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2655-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2655-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The absorption of visible light in ice is very weak but its precise value is unknown. By measuring the profile of light intensity in snow, Warren and Brand (2006) deduced that light is attenuated by a factor 2 per kilometer in pure ice at a wavelength of 400 nm. We replicated their experiment on a large number of samples and found that ice absorption is at least 10 times stronger. The paper explores various potential physical and statistical biases that could impact the experiment.
Silvan Leinss, Henning Löwe, Martin Proksch, Juha Lemmetyinen, Andreas Wiesmann, and Irena Hajnsek
The Cryosphere, 10, 1771–1797, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1771-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1771-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Four years of anisotropy measurements of seasonal snow are presented in the paper. The anisotropy was measured every 4 h with a ground-based polarimetric radar. An electromagnetic model has been developed to measured the anisotropy with radar instruments from ground and from space. The anisotropic permittivity was derived with Maxwell–Garnett-type mixing formulas which are shown to be equivalent to series expansions of the permittivity tensor based on spatial correlation function of snow.
Pascal Hagenmuller, Margret Matzl, Guillaume Chambon, and Martin Schneebeli
The Cryosphere, 10, 1039–1054, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1039-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1039-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The paper focuses on the characterization of snow microstructure with X-ray microtomography, a technique that is progressively becoming the standard for snow characterization. In particular, it rigorously investigates how the image processing algorithms affect the subsequent microstructure characterization in terms of density and specific surface area. From this analysis, practical recommendations concerning the processing X-ray tomographic images of snow are provided.
Pirmin Philipp Ebner, Martin Schneebeli, and Aldo Steinfeld
The Cryosphere, 10, 791–797, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-791-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-791-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Changes of the porous ice structure were observed in a snow sample. Sublimation occurred due to the slight undersaturation of the incoming air into the warmer ice matrix. Diffusion of water vapor opposite to the direction of the temperature gradient counteracted the mass transport of advection. Therefore, the total net ice change was negligible, leading to a constant porosity profile. However, the strong recrystallization of water molecules in snow may impact its isotopic or chemical content.
Cited articles
Alley, R. B.: Firn densification by grain-boundary sliding – a 1st model, J. Phys.-Paris, 48, 249–256, 1987.
Aoki, T., Fukabori, M., Hachikubo, A., Tachibana, Y., and Nishio, F.: Effects of snow physical parameters on spectral albedo and bidirectional reflectance of snow surface, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 105, 10219–10236, 2000.
Aristidi, E., Agabi, K., Azouit, M., Fossat, E., Vernin, J., Travouillon, T., Lawrence, J. S., Meyer, C., Storey, J. W. V., Halter, B., Roth, W. L., and Walden, V.: An analysis of temperatures and wind speeds above Dome C, Antarctica, Astron. Astrophys., 430, 739–746, https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20041876, 2005.
Arnaud, L., Picard, G., Champollion, N., Domine, F., Gallet, J., Lefebvre, E., Fily, M., and Barnola, J. M.: Measurement of vertical profiles of snow specific surface area with a one centimeter resolution using infrared reflectance: Instrument description and validation, J. Glaciol., 57, 17–29, 2011.
Brucker, L., Picard, G., Arnaud, L., Barnola, J. M., Schneebeli, M., Brunjail, H., Lefebvre, E., and Fily, M.: Modeling time series of microwave brightness temperature at Dome C, Antarctica, using vertically resolved snow temperature and microstructure measurements, J. Glaciol., 57, 171–182, 2011.
Burniston, D. A., Strachan, W. J. M., Hoff, J. T., and Wania, F.: Changes in surface area and concentrations of semivolatile organic contaminants in aging snow, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 4932–4937, https://doi.org/10.1021/es0706450, 2007.
Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., and Domine, F.: Evolution of the specific surface area and of crystal morphology of Arctic fresh snow during the ALERT 2000 campaign, Atmos. Environ., 36, 2767–2777, 2002.
Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., and Domine, F.: Rate of evolution of the specific surface area of surface snow layers, Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 661–666, https://doi.org/10.1021/es025880r, 2003.
Colbeck, S. C.: An overview of seasonal snow metamorphism, Rev. Geophys., 20, 45–61, 1982.
Conger, S. M. and McClung, D. M.: Comparison of density cutters for snow profile observations, J. Glaciol., 55, 163–169, 2009.
Cox, R. A., Fernandez, M. A., Symington, A., Ullerstam, M., and Abbatt, J. P. D.: A kinetic model for uptake of HNO3 and HCl on ice in a coated wall flow system, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 7, 3434–3442, https://doi.org/10.1039/b506683b, 2005.
Domine, F. and Shepson, P. B.: Air-snow interactions and atmospheric chemistry, Science, 297, 1506–1510, 2002.
Domine, F. and Thibert, E.: Mechanism of incorporation of trace gases in ice grown from the gas phase, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 3627–3630, 1996.
Domine, F., Thibert, E., Silvente, E., Legrand, M., and Jaffrezo, J. L.: Determining past atmospheric HCl mixing ratios from ice core analyses, J. Atmos. Chem., 21, 165–186, 1995.
Domine, F., Salvatori, R., Legagneux, L., Salzano, R., Fily, M., and Casacchia, R.: Correlation between the specific surface area and the short wave infrared (SWIR) reflectance of snow, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 46, 60–68, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2006.06.002, 2006.
Domine, F., Cincinelli, A., Bonnaud, E., Martellini, T., and Picaud, S.: Adsorption of phenanthrene on natural snow, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 6033–6038, https://doi.org/10.1021/es0706798, 2007a.
Domine, F., Taillandier, A. S., and Simpson, W. R.: A parameterization of the specific surface area of seasonal snow for field use and for models of snowpack evolution, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 112, F02031, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006jf000512, 2007b.
Domine, F., Albert, M., Huthwelker, T., Jacobi, H.-W., Kokhanovsky, A. A., Lehning, M., Picard, G., and Simpson, W. R.: Snow physics as relevant to snow photochemistry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 171–208, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-171-2008, 2008.
Domine, F., Taillandier, A.-S., Cabanes, A., Douglas, T. A., and Sturm, M.: Three examples where the specific surface area of snow increased over time, The Cryosphere, 3, 31–39, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-3-31-2009, 2009.
Fily, M., Bourdelles, B., Dedieu, J. P., and Sergent, C.: Comparison of in situ and Landsat thematic mapper derived snow grain characteristics in the Alps, Remote Sens. Environ., 59, 452–460, 1997.
Flanner, M. G. and Zender, C. S.: Linking snowpack microphysics and albedo evolution, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D12208, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jd006834, 2006.
Frezzotti, M., Pourchet, M., Flora, O., Gandolfi, S., Gay, M., Urbini, S., Vincent, C., Becagli, S., Gragnani, R., Proposito, M., Severi, M., Traversi, R., Udisti, R., and Fily, M.: Spatial and temporal variability of snow accumulation in East Antarctica from traverse data, J. Glaciol., 51, 113–124, 2005.
Gallet, J.-C., Domine, F., Zender, C. S., and Picard, G.: Measurement of the specific surface area of snow using infrared reflectance in an integrating sphere at 1310 and 1550 nm, The Cryosphere, 3, 167–182, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-3-167-2009, 2009.
Goody, R.: Polar process and world climate (a brief overview), Mon. Weather Rev., 108, 1935–1942, 1980.
Grannas, A. M., Jones, A. E., Dibb, J., Ammann, M., Anastasio, C., Beine, H. J., Bergin, M., Bottenheim, J., Boxe, C. S., Carver, G., Chen, G., Crawford, J. H., Dominé, F., Frey, M. M., Guzmán, M. I., Heard, D. E., Helmig, D., Hoffmann, M. R., Honrath, R. E., Huey, L. G., Hutterli, M., Jacobi, H. W., Klán, P., Lefer, B., McConnell, J., Plane, J., Sander, R., Savarino, J., Shepson, P. B., Simpson, W. R., Sodeau, J. R., von Glasow, R., Weller, R., Wolff, E. W., and Zhu, T.: An overview of snow photochemistry: evidence, mechanisms and impacts, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4329–4373, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-4329-2007, 2007.
Grenfell, T. C. and Warren, S. G.: Representation of a nonspherical ice particle by a collection of independent spheres for scattering and absorption of radiation, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 104, 31697–31709, 1999.
Grenfell, T. C., Warren, S. G., and Mullen, P. C.: Reflection of solar-radiation by the Antarctic snow surface at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 99, 18669–18684, 1994.
Grenfell, T. C., Neshyba, S. P., and Warren, S. G.: Representation of a nonspherical ice particle by a collection of independent spheres for scattering and absorption of radiation: 3. Hollow columns and plates, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, D17203, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jd005811, 2005.
Greuell, W. and Oerlemans, J.: Narrowband-to-broadband albedo conversion for glacier ice and snow: equations based on modeling and ranges of validity of the equations, Remote Sens. Environ., 89, 95–105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2003.10.010, 2004.
Hall, A.: The role of surface albedo feedback in climate, J. Climate, 17, 1550–1568, 2004.
Herbert, B. M. J., Villa, S., and Halsall, C.: Chemical interactions with snow: Understanding the behavior and fate of semi-volatile organic compounds in snow, Ecotox. Environ. Safe., 63, 3–16, 2006.
Houdier, S., Perrier, S., Domine, F., Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., Grannas, A. M., Guimbaud, C., Shepson, P. B., Boudries, H., and Bottenheim, J. W.: Acetaldehyde and acetone in the Arctic snowpack during the ALERT2000 campaign. Snowpack composition, incorporation processes and atmospheric impact, Atmos. Environ., 36, 2609–2618, 2002.
Hudson, S. R., Warren, S. G., Brandt, R. E., Grenfell, T. C., and Six, D.: Spectral bidirectional reflectance of Antarctic snow: Measurements and parameterization, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D18106, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006jd007290, 2006.
Jin, Z. H., Charlock, T. P., Yang, P., Xie, Y., and Miller, W.: Snow optical properties for different particle shapes with application to snow grain size retrieval and MODIS/CERES radiance comparison over Antarctica, Remote Sens. Environ., 112, 3563–3581, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.04.011, 2008.
Kokhanovsky, A. and Schreier, M.: The determination of snow specific surface area, albedo and effective grain size using AATSR space-borne measurements, Int. J. Remote Sens., 30, 919–933, https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160802395250, 2009.
Kokhanovsky, A. A. and Zege, E. P.: Scattering optics of snow, Appl. Optics, 43, 1589–1602, 2004.
Legagneux, L. and Domine, F.: A mean field model of the decrease of the specific surface area of dry snow during isothermal metamorphism, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 110, F04011, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004jf000181, 2005.
Legagneux, L., Cabanes, A., and Domine, F.: Measurement of the specific surface area of 176 snow samples using methane adsorption at 77 K, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107, 4335, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001jd001016, 2002.
Legagneux, L., Taillandier, A. S., and Domine, F.: Grain growth theories and the isothermal evolution of the specific surface area of snow, J. Appl. Phys., 95, 6175–6184, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1710718, 2004.
Lemke, P., Ren, J., Alley, R. B., Allison, I., Carrasco, J., Flato, G., Fujii, Y., Kaser, G., Mote, P., Thomas, R. H., and Zhang, T.: Observations Changes in Snow, Ice and Frozen Ground, in: Climate Change 2007: The physical Sciences Basis, edited by: Pachauri, R. K. and Reisinger, A., IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.
Leroux, C. and Fily, M.: Modeling the effect of sastrugi on snow reflectance, J. Geophys. Res.-Planet., 103, 25779–25788, 1998.
Lyapustin, A., Tedesco, M., Wang, Y. J., Aoki, T., Hori, M., and Kokhanovsky, A.: Retrieval of snow grain size over Greenland from MODIS, Remote Sens. Environ., 113, 1976–1987, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.05.008, 2009.
Matzl, M. and Schneebeli, M.: Measuring specific surface area of snow by near-infrared photography, J. Glaciol., 52, 558–564, 2006.
Mondet, J. and Fily, M.: The reflectance of rough snow surfaces in Antarctica from POLDER/ADEOS remote sensing data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3477–3480, 1999.
Neshyba, S. P., Grenfell, T. C., and Warren, S. G.: Representation of a nonspherical ice particle by a collection of independent spheres for scattering and absorption of radiation: 2. Hexagonal columns and plates, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, D15, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002jd003302, 2003.
Painter, T. H., Molotch, N. P., Cassidy, M., Flanner, M., and Steffen, K.: Instruments and methods – Contact spectroscopy for determination of stratigraphy of snow optical grain size, J. Glaciol., 53, 121–127, 2007.
Picard, G., Arnaud, L., Domine, F., and Fily, M.: Determining snow specific surface area from near-infrared reflectance measurements: Numerical study of the influence of grain shape, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 56, 10–17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2008.10.001, 2009.
Pinzer, B. R. and Schneebeli, M.: Snow metamorphism under alternating temperature gradients: Morphology and recrystallization in surface snow, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L23503, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009gl039618, 2009.
Scambos, T. A., Haran, T. M., Fahnestock, M. A., Painter, T. H., and Bohlander, J.: MODIS-based Mosaic of Antarctica (MOA) data sets: Continent-wide surface morphology and snow grain size, Remote Sens. Environ., 111, 242–257, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.12.020, 2007.
Schaepman-Strub, G., Schaepman, M. E., Painter, T. H., Dangel, S., and Martonchik, J. V.: Reflectance quantities in optical remote sensing-definitions and case studies, Remote Sens. Environ., 103, 27–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.03.002, 2006.
Stamnes, K., Tsay, S. C., Wiscombe, W., and Jayaweera, K.: Numerically stable algorithm for discrete-ordinate-method radiative-transfer in multiple-scattering and emitting layered media, Appl. Optics, 27, 2502–2509, 1988.
Stroeve, J. C. and Nolin, A. W.: New methods to infer snow albedo from the MISR instrument with applications to the Greenland ice sheet, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 40, 1616–1625, https://doi.org/10.1109/tgrs.2002.801144, 2002.
Taillandier, A. S., Domine, F., Simpson, W. R., Sturm, M., Douglas, T. A., and Severin, K.: Evolution of the snow area index of the subarctic snowpack in central Alaska over a whole season. Consequences for the air to snow transfer of pollutants, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 7521–7527, https://doi.org/10.1021/es060842j, 2006.
Taillandier, A. S., Domine, F., Simpson, W. R., Sturm, M., and Douglas, T. A.: Rate of decrease of the specific surface area of dry snow: Isothermal and temperature gradient conditions, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 112, F03003, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006jf000514, 2007.
Warren, S. G.: Optical-properties of snow, Rev. Geophys., 20, 67–89, 1982.
Warren, S. G. and Clarke, A. D.: Soot in the atmosphere and snow surface of Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 95, 1811–1816, 1990.
Warren, S. G. and Wiscombe, W. J.: A model for the spectral albedo of snow. 2. Snow containing atmospheric aerosols, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2734–2745, 1980.
Warren, S. G., Brandt, R. E., and Hinton, P. O.: Effect of surface roughness on bidirectional reflectance of Antarctic snow, J. Geophys. Res.-Planet., 103, 25789–25807, 1998.
Warren, S. G., Brandt, R. E., and Grenfell, T. C.: Visible and near-ultraviolet absorption spectrum of ice from transmission of solar radiation into snow, Appl. Optics, 45, 5320–5334, 2006.
Wiscombe, W. J.: Improved Mie scattering algorithms, Appl. Optics, 19, 1505–1509, 1980.
Wiscombe, W. J. and Warren, S. G.: A model for the spectral albedo of snow. 1. Pure snow, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2712–2733, 1980.
Zhou, X. B., Li, S. S., and Stamnes, K.: Effects of vertical inhomogeneity on snow spectral albedo and its implication for optical remote sensing of snow, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, D4738, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003jd003859, 2003.
