Articles | Volume 18, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1669-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1669-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Invited perspective article
| 
09 Apr 2024
Invited perspective article |
| 09 Apr 2024
| 09 Apr 2024
Discriminating viscous-creep features (rock glaciers) in mountain permafrost from debris-covered glaciers – a commented test at the Gruben and Yerba Loca sites, Swiss Alps and Chilean Andes
Wilfried Haeberli
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Geography, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
Lukas U. Arenson
BGC Engineering, Suite 500 – 980 Howe Street, Vancouver, BC V6Z 0C8, Canada
Julie Wee
Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
Christian Hauck
Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
Nico Mölg
ENVEO, Fürstenweg 176, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
Related authors
Adam Emmer, Oscar Vilca, Cesar Salazar Checa, Sihan Li, Simon Cook, Elena Pummer, Jan Hrebrina, and Wilfried Haeberli
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1207–1228, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1207-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1207-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We describe in detail the most recent large landslide-triggered glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) in the Peruvian Andes (the 2023 Rasac GLOF), analysing its preconditions and consequences, as well as the role of the changing climate. Our study contributes to understanding GLOF occurrence patterns in space and time and corroborates reports detailing the increasing frequency of such events in changing mountains.
Julie Wee, Sebastián Vivero, Tamara Mathys, Coline Mollaret, Christian Hauck, Christophe Lambiel, Jan Beutel, and Wilfried Haeberli
The Cryosphere, 18, 5939–5963, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study highlights the importance of a multi-method and multi-disciplinary approach to better understand the influence of the internal structure of the Gruben glacier-forefield-connected rock glacier and adjacent debris-covered glacier on their driving thermo-mechanical processes and associated surface dynamics. We were able to discriminate glacial from periglacial processes as their spatio-temporal patterns of surface dynamics and geophysical signatures are (mostly) different.
Roberto Giovanni Francese, Roberto Valentino, Wilfried Haeberli, Aldino Bondesan, Massimo Giorgi, Stefano Picotti, Franco Pettenati, Denis Sandron, Gianni Ramponi, and Mauro Valt
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-212, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-212, 2024
Revised manuscript under review for NHESS
Short summary
Short summary
The deadly collapse of the Marmolada Glacier in Italy in July 2022, is part of a global trend of rapid glacial retreat due to climate change. The event was influenced by permafrost degradation and abnormal warming. Historical data, geophysical surveys, and numerical simulations were used to analyze the collapse. Ice fracturing, water infiltration, and basal lubrication were key contributors. Predicting glacier instability is rather complex but monitoring is vital to cope with the hazard.
W. Haeberli
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2015-222, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2015-222, 2016
Revised manuscript has not been submitted
Short summary
Short summary
Area- and slope-related approaches for estimating thicknesses and calculating volumes of unmeasured glaciers are compared with respect to statistical regression/correlation, area definition, error propagation, calibration/validation and average versus distributed values. Slope-related techniques and numerical modeling making full use of 3-D-information are better constrained and provide realistic glacier-bed topographies. Corresponding results are available at local to regional and global scales
W. Haeberli and A. Linsbauer
The Cryosphere, 7, 817–821, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-817-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-817-2013, 2013
Adam Emmer, Oscar Vilca, Cesar Salazar Checa, Sihan Li, Simon Cook, Elena Pummer, Jan Hrebrina, and Wilfried Haeberli
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1207–1228, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1207-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1207-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We describe in detail the most recent large landslide-triggered glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) in the Peruvian Andes (the 2023 Rasac GLOF), analysing its preconditions and consequences, as well as the role of the changing climate. Our study contributes to understanding GLOF occurrence patterns in space and time and corroborates reports detailing the increasing frequency of such events in changing mountains.
Clemens Moser, Umberto Morra di Cella, Christian Hauck, and Adrián Flores Orozco
The Cryosphere, 19, 143–171, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We use electrical conductivity and induced polarization in an imaging framework to quantify hydrogeological parameters in the active Gran Sometta rock glacier. The results show high spatial variability in the hydrogeological parameters across the rock glacier and are validated by saltwater tracer tests coupled with 3D electrical conductivity imaging. Hydrogeological information was linked to kinematic data to further investigate its role in rock glacier movement.
Julie Wee, Sebastián Vivero, Tamara Mathys, Coline Mollaret, Christian Hauck, Christophe Lambiel, Jan Beutel, and Wilfried Haeberli
The Cryosphere, 18, 5939–5963, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study highlights the importance of a multi-method and multi-disciplinary approach to better understand the influence of the internal structure of the Gruben glacier-forefield-connected rock glacier and adjacent debris-covered glacier on their driving thermo-mechanical processes and associated surface dynamics. We were able to discriminate glacial from periglacial processes as their spatio-temporal patterns of surface dynamics and geophysical signatures are (mostly) different.
Roberto Giovanni Francese, Roberto Valentino, Wilfried Haeberli, Aldino Bondesan, Massimo Giorgi, Stefano Picotti, Franco Pettenati, Denis Sandron, Gianni Ramponi, and Mauro Valt
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-212, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-212, 2024
Revised manuscript under review for NHESS
Short summary
Short summary
The deadly collapse of the Marmolada Glacier in Italy in July 2022, is part of a global trend of rapid glacial retreat due to climate change. The event was influenced by permafrost degradation and abnormal warming. Historical data, geophysical surveys, and numerical simulations were used to analyze the collapse. Ice fracturing, water infiltration, and basal lubrication were key contributors. Predicting glacier instability is rather complex but monitoring is vital to cope with the hazard.
Tamara Mathys, Muslim Azimshoev, Zhoodarbeshim Bektursunov, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Murataly Duishonakunov, Abdulhamid Kayumov, Nikolay Kassatkin, Vassily Kapitsa, Leo C. P. Martin, Coline Mollaret, Hofiz Navruzshoev, Eric Pohl, Tomas Saks, Intizor Silmonov, Timur Musaev, Ryskul Usubaliev, and Martin Hoelzle
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2795, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2795, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides a comprehensive geophysical dataset on permafrost in the data-scarce Tien Shan and Pamir mountain regions of Central Asia. It also introduces a novel modeling method to quantify ground ice content across different landforms. The findings indicate that this approach is well-suited for characterizing ice-rich permafrost, which is crucial for evaluating future water availability and assessing risks associated with thawing permafrost.
Cassandra E.M. Koenig, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, Lukas U. Arenson, and Pablo Wainstein
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2244, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2244, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents an analysis of ground temperature data from 53 high-altitude boreholes in permafrost regions of the Central Andes. Results show that thermal characteristics of the region align with other mountain permafrost areas, while also showing unique features. The dataset could improve permafrost models and monitoring efforts, and inform mitigation strategies. The study highlights a notable collaboration between industry, academia, and regulators for advancing climate change research.
Mohammad Farzamian, Teddi Herring, Gonçalo Vieira, Miguel Angel de Pablo, Borhan Yaghoobi Tabar, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 18, 4197–4213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4197-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4197-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
An automated electrical resistivity tomography (A-ERT) system was developed and deployed in Antarctica to monitor permafrost and active-layer dynamics. The A-ERT, coupled with an efficient processing workflow, demonstrated its capability to monitor real-time thaw depth progression, detect seasonal and surficial freezing–thawing events, and assess permafrost stability. Our study showcased the potential of A-ERT to contribute to global permafrost monitoring networks.
Theresa Maierhofer, Adrian Flores Orozco, Nathalie Roser, Jonas K. Limbrock, Christin Hilbich, Clemens Moser, Andreas Kemna, Elisabetta Drigo, Umberto Morra di Cella, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 18, 3383–3414, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we apply an electrical method in a high-mountain permafrost terrain in the Italian Alps, where long-term borehole temperature data are available for validation. In particular, we investigate the frequency dependence of the electrical properties for seasonal and annual variations along a 3-year monitoring period. We demonstrate that our method is capable of resolving temporal changes in the thermal state and the ice / water ratio associated with seasonal freeze–thaw processes.
Bernd Etzelmüller, Ketil Isaksen, Justyna Czekirda, Sebastian Westermann, Christin Hilbich, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 17, 5477–5497, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is widespread in the mountains of Norway and Iceland. Several boreholes were drilled after 1999 for long-term permafrost monitoring. We document a strong warming of permafrost, including the development of unfrozen bodies in the permafrost. Warming and degradation of mountain permafrost may lead to more natural hazards.
Johannes Buckel, Jan Mudler, Rainer Gardeweg, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Regula Frauenfelder, Christof Kneisel, Sebastian Buchelt, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Andreas Hördt, and Matthias Bücker
The Cryosphere, 17, 2919–2940, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study reveals permafrost degradation by repeating old geophysical measurements at three Alpine sites. The compared data indicate that ice-poor permafrost is highly affected by temperature warming. The melting of ice-rich permafrost could not be identified. However, complex geomorphic processes are responsible for this rather than external temperature change. We suspect permafrost degradation here as well. In addition, we introduce a new current injection method for data acquisition.
Adrian Wicki, Peter Lehmann, Christian Hauck, and Manfred Stähli
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1059–1077, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1059-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1059-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Soil wetness measurements are used for shallow landslide prediction; however, existing sites are often located in flat terrain. Here, we assessed the ability of monitoring sites at flat locations to detect critically saturated conditions compared to if they were situated at a landslide-prone location. We found that differences exist but that both sites could equally well distinguish critical from non-critical conditions for shallow landslide triggering if relative changes are considered.
Tamara Mathys, Christin Hilbich, Lukas U. Arenson, Pablo A. Wainstein, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 16, 2595–2615, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
With ongoing climate change, there is a pressing need to understand how much water is stored as ground ice in permafrost. Still, field-based data on permafrost in the Andes are scarce, resulting in large uncertainties regarding ground ice volumes and their hydrological role. We introduce an upscaling methodology of geophysical-based ground ice quantifications at the catchment scale. Our results indicate that substantial ground ice volumes may also be present in areas without rock glaciers.
Theresa Maierhofer, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Andreas Kemna, and Adrián Flores-Orozco
The Cryosphere, 16, 1903–1925, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1903-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1903-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We extend the application of electrical methods to characterize alpine permafrost using the so-called induced polarization (IP) effect associated with the storage of charges at the interface between liquid and solid phases. We investigate different field protocols to enhance data quality and conclude that with appropriate measurement and processing procedures, the characteristic dependence of the IP response of frozen rocks improves the assessment of thermal state and ice content in permafrost.
Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, Coline Mollaret, Pablo Wainstein, and Lukas U. Arenson
The Cryosphere, 16, 1845–1872, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1845-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1845-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In view of water scarcity in the Andes, the significance of permafrost as a future water resource is often debated focusing on satellite-detected features such as rock glaciers. We present data from > 50 geophysical surveys in Chile and Argentina to quantify the ground ice volume stored in various permafrost landforms, showing that not only rock glacier but also non-rock-glacier permafrost contains significant ground ice volumes and is relevant when assessing the hydrological role of permafrost.
Martin Hoelzle, Christian Hauck, Tamara Mathys, Jeannette Noetzli, Cécile Pellet, and Martin Scherler
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1531–1547, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1531-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1531-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
With ongoing climate change, it is crucial to understand the interactions of the individual heat fluxes at the surface and within the subsurface layers, as well as their impacts on the permafrost thermal regime. A unique set of high-altitude meteorological measurements has been analysed to determine the energy balance at three mountain permafrost sites in the Swiss Alps, where data have been collected since the late 1990s in collaboration with the Swiss Permafrost Monitoring Network (PERMOS).
Bernd Etzelmüller, Justyna Czekirda, Florence Magnin, Pierre-Allain Duvillard, Ludovic Ravanel, Emanuelle Malet, Andreas Aspaas, Lene Kristensen, Ingrid Skrede, Gudrun D. Majala, Benjamin Jacobs, Johannes Leinauer, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Martina Böhme, Reginald Hermanns, Harald Ø. Eriksen, Tom Rune Lauknes, Michael Krautblatter, and Sebastian Westermann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 97–129, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-97-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-97-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This paper is a multi-authored study documenting the possible existence of permafrost in permanently monitored rockslides in Norway for the first time by combining a multitude of field data, including geophysical surveys in rock walls. The paper discusses the possible role of thermal regime and rockslide movement, and it evaluates the possible impact of atmospheric warming on rockslide dynamics in Norwegian mountains.
Adrian Wicki, Per-Erik Jansson, Peter Lehmann, Christian Hauck, and Manfred Stähli
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4585–4610, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4585-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4585-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Soil moisture information was shown to be valuable for landslide prediction. Soil moisture was simulated at 133 sites in Switzerland, and the temporal variability was compared to the regional occurrence of landslides. We found that simulated soil moisture is a good predictor for landslides, and that the forecast goodness is similar to using in situ measurements. This encourages the use of models for complementing existing soil moisture monitoring networks for regional landslide early warning.
Christian Halla, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Carla Tapia Baldis, Dario Trombotto Liaudat, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, and Lothar Schrott
The Cryosphere, 15, 1187–1213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In the semi-arid to arid Andes of Argentina, rock glaciers contain invisible and unknown amounts of ground ice that could become more important in future for the water availability during the dry season. The study shows that the investigated rock glacier represents an important long-term ice reservoir in the dry mountain catchment and that interannual changes of ground ice can store and release significant amounts of annual precipitation.
Maximilian Weigand, Florian M. Wagner, Jonas K. Limbrock, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, and Andreas Kemna
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 9, 317–336, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-9-317-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-9-317-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In times of global warming, permafrost is starting to degrade at alarming rates, requiring new and improved characterization approaches. We describe the design and test installation, as well as detailed data quality assessment, of a monitoring system used to capture natural electrical potentials in the subsurface. These self-potential signals are of great interest for the noninvasive investigation of water flow in the non-frozen or partially frozen subsurface.
Mohammad Farzamian, Gonçalo Vieira, Fernando A. Monteiro Santos, Borhan Yaghoobi Tabar, Christian Hauck, Maria Catarina Paz, Ivo Bernardo, Miguel Ramos, and Miguel Angel de Pablo
The Cryosphere, 14, 1105–1120, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1105-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1105-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A 2-D automated electrical resistivity tomography (A-ERT) system was installed for the first time in Antarctica at Deception Island to (i) monitor subsurface freezing and thawing processes on a daily and seasonal basis and map the spatial and temporal variability of thaw depth and to (ii) study the impact of short-lived extreme meteorological events on active layer dynamics.
Coline Mollaret, Christin Hilbich, Cécile Pellet, Adrian Flores-Orozco, Reynald Delaloye, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 13, 2557–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present a long-term multisite electrical resistivity tomography monitoring network (more than 1000 datasets recorded from six mountain permafrost sites). Despite harsh and remote measurement conditions, the datasets are of good quality and show consistent spatio-temporal variations yielding significant added value to point-scale borehole information. Observed long-term trends are similar for all permafrost sites, showing ongoing permafrost thaw and ground ice loss due to climatic conditions.
Jan Mudler, Andreas Hördt, Anita Przyklenk, Gianluca Fiandaca, Pradip Kumar Maurya, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 13, 2439–2456, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2439-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2439-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The capacitively coupled resistivity (CCR) method enables the determination of frequency-dependent electrical parameters of the subsurface. CCR is well suited for application in cryospheric areas because it provides logistical advantages regarding coupling on hard surfaces and highly resistive grounds. With our new spectral two-dimensional inversion, we can identify subsurface structures based on full spectral information. We show the first results of the inversion method on the field scale.
Nico Mölg, Tobias Bolch, Andrea Walter, and Andreas Vieli
The Cryosphere, 13, 1889–1909, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1889-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1889-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Debris can partly protect glaciers from melting. But many debris-covered glaciers change similar to debris-free glaciers. To better understand the debris influence we investigated 150 years of evolution of Zmutt Glacier in Switzerland. We found an increase in debris extent over time and a link to glacier flow velocity changes. We also found an influence of debris on the melt locally, but only a small volume change reduction over the whole glacier, also because of the influence of ice cliffs.
Nico Mölg, Tobias Bolch, Philipp Rastner, Tazio Strozzi, and Frank Paul
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 1807–1827, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-1807-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-1807-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Knowledge about the size and location of glaciers is essential to understand impacts of climatic changes on the natural environment. Therefore, we have produced an inventory of all glaciers in some of the largest glacierized mountain regions worldwide. Many large glaciers are covered by a rock (debris) layer, which also changes their reaction to climatic changes. Thus, we have also mapped this debris layer for all glaciers. We have mapped almost 28000 glaciers covering ~35000 km2.
Martin Beniston, Daniel Farinotti, Markus Stoffel, Liss M. Andreassen, Erika Coppola, Nicolas Eckert, Adriano Fantini, Florie Giacona, Christian Hauck, Matthias Huss, Hendrik Huwald, Michael Lehning, Juan-Ignacio López-Moreno, Jan Magnusson, Christoph Marty, Enrique Morán-Tejéda, Samuel Morin, Mohamed Naaim, Antonello Provenzale, Antoine Rabatel, Delphine Six, Johann Stötter, Ulrich Strasser, Silvia Terzago, and Christian Vincent
The Cryosphere, 12, 759–794, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-759-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-759-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This paper makes a rather exhaustive overview of current knowledge of past, current, and future aspects of cryospheric issues in continental Europe and makes a number of reflections of areas of uncertainty requiring more attention in both scientific and policy terms. The review paper is completed by a bibliography containing 350 recent references that will certainly be of value to scholars engaged in the fields of glacier, snow, and permafrost research.
Benjamin Mewes, Christin Hilbich, Reynald Delaloye, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 11, 2957–2974, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2957-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2957-2017, 2017
Cécile Pellet and Christian Hauck
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3199–3220, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3199-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-3199-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a detailed description of the new Swiss soil moisture monitoring network SOMOMOUNT, which comprises six stations distributed along an elevation gradient ranging from 1205 to 3410 m. The liquid soil moisture (LSM) data collected during the first 3 years are discussed with regard to their soil type and climate dependency as well as their altitudinal distribution. The elevation dependency of the LSM was found to be non-linear with distinct dynamics at high and low elevation.
Jonas Wicky and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 11, 1311–1325, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1311-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1311-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Talus slopes are a widespread geomorphic feature, which may show permafrost conditions even at low elevation due to cold microclimates induced by a gravity-driven internal air circulation. We show for the first time a numerical simulation of this internal air circulation of a field-scale talus slope. Results indicate that convective heat transfer leads to a pronounced ground cooling in the lower part of the talus slope favoring the persistence of permafrost.
Antoine Marmy, Jan Rajczak, Reynald Delaloye, Christin Hilbich, Martin Hoelzle, Sven Kotlarski, Christophe Lambiel, Jeannette Noetzli, Marcia Phillips, Nadine Salzmann, Benno Staub, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 10, 2693–2719, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2693-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2693-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a new semi-automated method to calibrate the 1-D soil model COUP. It is the first time (as far as we know) that this approach is developed for mountain permafrost. It is applied at six test sites in the Swiss Alps. In a second step, the calibrated model is used for RCM-based simulations with specific downscaling of RCM data to the borehole scale. We show projections of the permafrost evolution at the six sites until the end of the century and according to the A1B scenario.
W. Haeberli
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2015-222, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2015-222, 2016
Revised manuscript has not been submitted
Short summary
Short summary
Area- and slope-related approaches for estimating thicknesses and calculating volumes of unmeasured glaciers are compared with respect to statistical regression/correlation, area definition, error propagation, calibration/validation and average versus distributed values. Slope-related techniques and numerical modeling making full use of 3-D-information are better constrained and provide realistic glacier-bed topographies. Corresponding results are available at local to regional and global scales
A. Ekici, S. Chadburn, N. Chaudhary, L. H. Hajdu, A. Marmy, S. Peng, J. Boike, E. Burke, A. D. Friend, C. Hauck, G. Krinner, M. Langer, P. A. Miller, and C. Beer
The Cryosphere, 9, 1343–1361, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1343-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1343-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
This paper compares the performance of different land models in estimating soil thermal regimes at distinct cold region landscape types. Comparing models with different processes reveal the importance of surface insulation (snow/moss layer) and soil internal processes (heat/water transfer). The importance of model processes also depend on site conditions such as high/low snow cover, dry/wet soil types.
P. Pogliotti, M. Guglielmin, E. Cremonese, U. Morra di Cella, G. Filippa, C. Pellet, and C. Hauck
The Cryosphere, 9, 647–661, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-647-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-647-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents the thermal state and recent evolution of permafrost at Cime Bianche.
The analysis reveals that (i) spatial variability of MAGST is greater than its interannual variability and is controlled by snow duration and air temperature during the snow-free period, (ii) the ALT has a pronounced spatial variability caused by a different subsurface ice and water content, and (iii) permafrost is warming at significant rates below 8m of depth.
B. Staub, A. Marmy, C. Hauck, C. Hilbich, and R. Delaloye
Geogr. Helv., 70, 45–62, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-70-45-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-70-45-2015, 2015
A. Ekici, C. Beer, S. Hagemann, J. Boike, M. Langer, and C. Hauck
Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 631–647, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-631-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-631-2014, 2014
M. Scherler, S. Schneider, M. Hoelzle, and C. Hauck
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 141–154, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-141-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-141-2014, 2014
S. Schneider, S. Daengeli, C. Hauck, and M. Hoelzle
Geogr. Helv., 68, 265–280, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-68-265-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-68-265-2013, 2013
W. Haeberli and A. Linsbauer
The Cryosphere, 7, 817–821, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-817-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-817-2013, 2013
Related subject area
Discipline: Frozen ground | Subject: Geomorphology
Characterizing ground ice content and origin to better understand the seasonal surface dynamics of the Gruben rock glacier and the adjacent Gruben debris-covered glacier (southern Swiss Alps)
Review article: Retrogressive thaw slump characteristics and terminology
The cryostratigraphy of thermo-erosion gullies in the Canadian High Arctic demonstrates the resilience of permafrost
Brief Communication: Mimicking periglacial landforms and processes in an ice-rich layered permafrost system with polydispersed melamine materials: a new concept
A climate-driven, altitudinal transition in rock glacier dynamics detected through integration of geomorphological mapping and synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR)-based kinematics
Assessment of rock glaciers and their water storage in Guokalariju, Tibetan Plateau
Identifying mountain permafrost degradation by repeating historical electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) measurements
Permafrost degradation at two monitored palsa mires in north-west Finland
Contrasted geomorphological and limnological properties of thermokarst lakes formed in buried glacier ice and ice-wedge polygon terrain
Recent degradation of interior Alaska permafrost mapped with ground surveys, geophysics, deep drilling, and repeat airborne lidar
Thaw-driven mass wasting couples slopes with downstream systems, and effects propagate through Arctic drainage networks
Ice content and interannual water storage changes of an active rock glacier in the dry Andes of Argentina
Insights into a remote cryosphere: a multi-method approach to assess permafrost occurrence at the Qugaqie basin, western Nyainqêntanglha Range, Tibetan Plateau
Permafrost distribution and conditions at the headwalls of two receding glaciers (Schladming and Hallstatt glaciers) in the Dachstein Massif, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria
Rock glacier characteristics serve as an indirect record of multiple alpine glacier advances in Taylor Valley, Antarctica
Evaluating the destabilization susceptibility of active rock glaciers in the French Alps
Julie Wee, Sebastián Vivero, Tamara Mathys, Coline Mollaret, Christian Hauck, Christophe Lambiel, Jan Beutel, and Wilfried Haeberli
The Cryosphere, 18, 5939–5963, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study highlights the importance of a multi-method and multi-disciplinary approach to better understand the influence of the internal structure of the Gruben glacier-forefield-connected rock glacier and adjacent debris-covered glacier on their driving thermo-mechanical processes and associated surface dynamics. We were able to discriminate glacial from periglacial processes as their spatio-temporal patterns of surface dynamics and geophysical signatures are (mostly) different.
Nina Nesterova, Marina Leibman, Alexander Kizyakov, Hugues Lantuit, Ilya Tarasevich, Ingmar Nitze, Alexandra Veremeeva, and Guido Grosse
The Cryosphere, 18, 4787–4810, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4787-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4787-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Retrogressive thaw slumps (RTSs) are widespread in the Arctic permafrost landforms. RTSs present a big interest for researchers because of their expansion due to climate change. There are currently different scientific schools and terminology used in the literature on this topic. We have critically reviewed existing concepts and terminology and provided clarifications to present a useful base for experts in the field and ease the introduction to the topic for scientists who are new to it.
Samuel Gagnon, Daniel Fortier, Étienne Godin, and Audrey Veillette
The Cryosphere, 18, 4743–4763, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4743-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4743-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Thermo-erosion gullies (TEGs) are one of the most common forms of abrupt permafrost degradation. While their inception has been examined in several studies, the processes of their stabilization remain poorly documented. For this study, we investigated two TEGs in the Canadian High Arctic. We found that, while the formation of a TEG leaves permanent geomorphological scars in landscapes, in the long term, permafrost can recover to conditions similar to those pre-dating the initial disturbance.
Emmanuel Léger, François Costard, Rémi Lambert, Albane Saintenoy, Antoine Séjourné, and Maxime Leblanc
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2690, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2690, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores the use of lightweight plastic particles for reproducing terrestrial geomorphological cryo-induced features at laboratory scale within permafrost/active layer thawing experiment. We show that, due to their small density and peculiar hydrodynamic parameters, these lightweight particles, originally designed for river sediment deposit and erosion are suitable for re-creating cryo-induced 3D geomorphological features found in terrestrial Retrogressive Thaw Slump.
Aldo Bertone, Nina Jones, Volkmar Mair, Riccardo Scotti, Tazio Strozzi, and Francesco Brardinoni
The Cryosphere, 18, 2335–2356, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2335-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2335-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Traditional inventories display high uncertainty in discriminating between intact (permafrost-bearing) and relict (devoid) rock glaciers (RGs). Integration of InSAR-based kinematics in South Tyrol affords uncertainty reduction and depicts a broad elevation belt of relict–intact coexistence. RG velocity and moving area (MA) cover increase linearly with elevation up to an inflection at 2600–2800 m a.s.l., which we regard as a signature of sporadic-to-discontinuous permafrost transition.
Mengzhen Li, Yanmin Yang, Zhaoyu Peng, and Gengnian Liu
The Cryosphere, 18, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We map a detailed rock glaciers inventory to further explore the regional distribution controlling factors, water storage, and permafrost probability distribution in Guokalariju. Results show that (i) the distribution of rock glaciers is controlled by the complex composition of topo-climate factors, increases in precipitation are conducive to rock glaciers forming at lower altitudes, and (ii) 1.32–3.60 km3 of water is stored in the rock glaciers, or ~ 59 % of the water glaciers presently store.
Johannes Buckel, Jan Mudler, Rainer Gardeweg, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Regula Frauenfelder, Christof Kneisel, Sebastian Buchelt, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Andreas Hördt, and Matthias Bücker
The Cryosphere, 17, 2919–2940, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study reveals permafrost degradation by repeating old geophysical measurements at three Alpine sites. The compared data indicate that ice-poor permafrost is highly affected by temperature warming. The melting of ice-rich permafrost could not be identified. However, complex geomorphic processes are responsible for this rather than external temperature change. We suspect permafrost degradation here as well. In addition, we introduce a new current injection method for data acquisition.
Mariana Verdonen, Alexander Störmer, Eliisa Lotsari, Pasi Korpelainen, Benjamin Burkhard, Alfred Colpaert, and Timo Kumpula
The Cryosphere, 17, 1803–1819, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1803-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1803-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The study revealed a stable and even decreasing thickness of thaw depth in peat mounds with perennially frozen cores, despite overall rapid permafrost degradation within 14 years. This means that measuring the thickness of the thawed layer – a commonly used method – is alone insufficient to assess the permafrost conditions in subarctic peatlands. The study showed that climate change is the main driver of these permafrost features’ decay, but its effect depends on the peatland’s local conditions.
Stéphanie Coulombe, Daniel Fortier, Frédéric Bouchard, Michel Paquette, Simon Charbonneau, Denis Lacelle, Isabelle Laurion, and Reinhard Pienitz
The Cryosphere, 16, 2837–2857, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2837-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2837-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Buried glacier ice is widespread in Arctic regions that were once covered by glaciers and ice sheets. In this study, we investigated the influence of buried glacier ice on the formation of Arctic tundra lakes on Bylot Island, Nunavut. Our results suggest that initiation of deeper lakes was triggered by the melting of buried glacier ice. Given future climate projections, the melting of glacier ice permafrost could create new aquatic ecosystems and strongly modify existing ones.
Thomas A. Douglas, Christopher A. Hiemstra, John E. Anderson, Robyn A. Barbato, Kevin L. Bjella, Elias J. Deeb, Arthur B. Gelvin, Patricia E. Nelsen, Stephen D. Newman, Stephanie P. Saari, and Anna M. Wagner
The Cryosphere, 15, 3555–3575, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3555-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3555-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Permafrost is actively degrading across high latitudes due to climate warming. We combined thousands of end-of-summer active layer measurements, permafrost temperatures, geophysical surveys, deep borehole drilling, and repeat airborne lidar to quantify permafrost warming and thawing at sites across central Alaska. We calculate the mass of permafrost soil carbon potentially exposed to thaw over the past 7 years (0.44 Pg) is similar to the yearly carbon dioxide emissions of Australia.
Steven V. Kokelj, Justin Kokoszka, Jurjen van der Sluijs, Ashley C. A. Rudy, Jon Tunnicliffe, Sarah Shakil, Suzanne E. Tank, and Scott Zolkos
The Cryosphere, 15, 3059–3081, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3059-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3059-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Climate-driven landslides are transforming glacially conditioned permafrost terrain, coupling slopes with aquatic systems, and triggering a cascade of downstream effects. Nonlinear intensification of thawing slopes is primarily affecting headwater systems where slope sediment yields overwhelm stream transport capacity. The propagation of effects across watershed scales indicates that western Arctic Canada will be an interconnected hotspot of thaw-driven change through the coming millennia.
Christian Halla, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Carla Tapia Baldis, Dario Trombotto Liaudat, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, and Lothar Schrott
The Cryosphere, 15, 1187–1213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In the semi-arid to arid Andes of Argentina, rock glaciers contain invisible and unknown amounts of ground ice that could become more important in future for the water availability during the dry season. The study shows that the investigated rock glacier represents an important long-term ice reservoir in the dry mountain catchment and that interannual changes of ground ice can store and release significant amounts of annual precipitation.
Johannes Buckel, Eike Reinosch, Andreas Hördt, Fan Zhang, Björn Riedel, Markus Gerke, Antje Schwalb, and Roland Mäusbacher
The Cryosphere, 15, 149–168, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-149-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-149-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents insights into the remote cryosphere of a mountain range at the Tibetan Plateau. Small-scaled studies and field data about permafrost occurrence are very scarce. A multi-method approach (geomorphological mapping, geophysics, InSAR time series analysis) assesses the lower occurrence of permafrost the range of 5350 and 5500 m above sea level (a.s.l.) in the Qugaqie basin. The highest, multiannual creeping rates up to 150 mm/yr are observed on rock glaciers.
Matthias Rode, Oliver Sass, Andreas Kellerer-Pirklbauer, Harald Schnepfleitner, and Christoph Gitschthaler
The Cryosphere, 14, 1173–1186, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1173-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1173-2020, 2020
Kelsey Winsor, Kate M. Swanger, Esther Babcock, Rachel D. Valletta, and James L. Dickson
The Cryosphere, 14, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We studied an ice-cored rock glacier in Taylor Valley, Antarctica, coupling ground-penetrating radar analyses with stable isotope and major ion geochemistry of (a) surface ponds and (b) buried clean ice. These analyses indicate that the rock glacier ice is fed by a nearby alpine glacier, recording multiple Holocene to late Pleistocene glacial advances. We demonstrate the potential to use rock glaciers and buried ice, common throughout Antarctica, to map previous glacial extents.
Marco Marcer, Charlie Serrano, Alexander Brenning, Xavier Bodin, Jason Goetz, and Philippe Schoeneich
The Cryosphere, 13, 141–155, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-141-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-141-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study aims to assess the occurrence of rock glacier destabilization in the French Alps, a process that causes a landslide-like behaviour of permafrost debris slopes. A significant number of the landforms in the region were found to be experiencing destabilization. Multivariate analysis suggested a link between destabilization occurrence and permafrost thaw induced by climate warming. These results call for a regional characterization of permafrost hazards in the context of climate change.
Cited articles
Alean, J., Schwendener, L. and Zemp, M.: Migrating boulders on the surface of Alpine valley glaciers, Geogr. Ann. A, 103, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.2020.1850064, 2020.
Amschwand, D., Ivy-Ochs, S., Frehner, M., Steinemann, O., Christl, M., and Vockenhuber, C.: Deciphering the evolution of the Bleis Marscha rock glacier (Val d'Err, eastern Switzerland) with cosmogenic nuclide exposure dating, aerial image correlation, and finite element modeling, The Cryosphere, 15, 2057–2081, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2057-2021, 2021.
Andersland, O. B. and Ladanyi, B.: Frozen Ground Engineering, 2nd Edn., Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-61549-1, 2003.
Anderson, L. S. and Anderson, R. S.: Debris thickness patterns on debris-covered glaciers, Geomorphology, 311, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.03.014, 2018.
Anderson, L. S., Armstrong, W. H., Anderson, R. S., Scherler, D., and Peter, E.: The causes of debris-covered glacier thinning: Evidence for the importance of ice dynamics from Kennicott Glacier, Alaska, Front. Earth Sci., 9, 680995, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.680995, 2021.
Anderson, R. S., Anderson, L. S., Armstrong, W. H., Rossi, M. W., and Crump, S. E.: Glaciation of alpine valleys: The glacier – debris-covered glacier – rock glacier continuum, Geomorphology 311, 127–142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.03.015, 2018.
Arenson, L. U. and Jakob, M.: Periglacial Geohazard Risks and Ground Temperature Increases, in: Engineering Geology for Society and Territory, Vol. 1, 233–237, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09300-0_44, 2015.
Arenson, L. U., Hoelzle, M., and Springman, S.: Borehole deformation measurements and internal structure of some rock glaciers in Switzerland, Permafrost Periglac. Proc., 13, 117–135, 2002.
Arenson, L. U., Colgan, W., and Marshall, H. P.: Physical, thermal and mechanical properties of snow, ice, and permafrost, in: Snow and Ice-Related Hazards, Risks, and Disasters, edited by: Haeberli, W. and Whiteman, C., Elsevier, 35–71, ISBN 978-0-12-817129-5, 2021.
Baral, P. and Haq, M. A.: Spatial prediction of permafrost occurrence in Sikkim Himalayas using logistic regression, random forests, support vector machines and neural networks, Geomorphology, 371, 107331, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107331, 2020.
Barsch, D.: Rockglaciers: Indicators for the Present and Former Geoecology in High Mountain Environments, Springer, Berlin, 331 pp., ISBN 3-540-60742-0, 1996.
Berthling, I.: Beyond confusion: Rock glaciers as cryo-conditioned landforms, Geomorphology, 131, 98–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.05.002, 2011.
Bertone, A., Jones, N., Mair, V., Scotti, R., Strozzi, T., and Brardinoni, F.: A climate-driven, altitudinal transition in rock glacier dynamics detected through integration of geomorphological mapping and InSAR-based kinematics, The Cryosphere Discuss. [preprint], https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2023-143, in review, 2023.
Bolch, T., Rohrbach, N., Kutusov, S., Robson, B. A., and Osmonov, A.: Occurrence, evolution and ice content of ice-debris complexes in the Ak-Shiirak, Central Tien Shan, revealed by geophysical and remotely-sensed investigations, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 44, 129–143, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4487, 2019.
Bosson, J. B. and Lambiel, C.: Internal structure and current evolution of very small debris-covered glacier systems located in Alpine permafrost environments, Front. Earth Sci, 4, 39, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2016.00039, 2016.
Bozhinskiy, A. N., Krass, M. S., and Popovnin, V. V.: Role of debris cover in the thermal physics of glaciers, J. Glaciol., 32, 255–266, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000015598, 1986.
Buckel, J., Mudler, J., Gardeweg, R., Hauck, C., Hilbich, C., Frauenfelder, R., Kneisel, C., Buchelt, S., Blöthe, J. H., Hördt, A., and Bücker, M.: Identifying mountain permafrost degradation by repeating historical electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) measurements, The Cryosphere, 17, 2919–2940, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, 2023.
Cicoira, A., Marcer, M., Gärtner-Roer, I., Bodin, X., Arenson, L. U., and Vieli, A.: A general theory of rock glacier creep based on in situ and remote sensing observations, Permafrost Periglac., 32, 139–153, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2090, 2021.
Clayton, L.: Karst topography on stagnant glaciers, J. Glaciol., 5, 107–112, https://doi.org/10.3189/s0022143000028628, 1964.
Cogley, J. G., Hock, R., Rasmussen, L. A., Arendt, A. A., Bauder, A., Braithwaite, R. J., Jansson, P., Kaser, G., Möller, M., Nicholson, L., and Zemp, M.: Glossary of Glacier Mass Balance and Related Terms, IHP-VII Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 86, IACS Contribution No. 2, P. UNESCO-IHP, Paris, 2011.
Cusicanqui, D., Rabatel, A., Vincent, C., Bodin, X., Thibert, E. and Francou, B.: Interpretation of volume and flux changes of the Laurichard rock glacier between 1952 and 2019, French Alps, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 126, e2021JF006161, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JF006161, 2021.
Cusicanqui, D., Bodin, X., Duvillard, P.-A., Schoeneich, P., Revil, A., Assier, A., Berthet, J., Peyron, M., Roudnitska, S., and Rabatel, A.: Glacier, permafrost and thermokarst interactions in Alpine terrain: Insights from seven decades of reconstructed dynamics of the Chauvet glacial and periglacial system (Southern French Alps), Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 48, 2595–2612, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.5650, 2023.
Davies, M. C. R., Hamza, O., and Harris, C.: The effect of rise in mean annual temperature on the stability of rock slopes containing ice-filled discontinuities, Permafrost Periglac., 12, 69–77, 2001.
de Pasquale, G., Valois, R., Schaffer, N., and MacDonell, S.: Contrasting geophysical signatures of a relict and an intact Andean rock glacier, The Cryosphere, 16, 1579–1596, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1579-2022, 2022.
Elconin, R. F. and LaChapelle, E. R.: Flow and internal structure of a rock glacier, J. Glaciol., 43, 238–244, 1997.
Etzelmüller, B., Guglielmin, M., Hauck, C., Hilbich, C., Hoelzle, M., Isaksen, K., Noetzli, J., Oliva, M., and Ramos, M.: Twenty years of European mountain permafrost dynamics – the PACE legacy, Environ. Res. Lett., 15, 104070, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abae9d, 2020.
Falatkova, K., Šobr, M., Neureiter, A., Schöner, W., Janský, B., Häusler, H., Engel, Z., and Beneš, V.: Development of proglacial lakes and evaluation of related outburst susceptibility at the Adygine ice-debris complex, northern Tien Shan, Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 301–320, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-301-2019, 2019.
Fey, C. and Krainer, K.: Analyses of UAV and GNSS based flow velocity variations of the rock glacier Lazaun (Ötztal Alps, South Tyrol, Italy), Geomorphology, 365, 107261, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107261, 2018.
Fisch, W. sen., Fisch, W. jun., and Haeberli, W.: Electrical D.C. resistivity soundings with long profiles on rock glaciers and moraines in the Alps of Switzerland, Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, 13, 239–260, 1978.
Fleischer, F., Haas, F., Altmann, M., Rom, J., Knoflach, B., and Becht, M.: Combination of historical and modern data to decipher the geomorphologic evolution of the Innere Ölgruben rock glacier, Kaunertal, Austria, over almost a century (1922–2021), Permafrost Periglac., 34, 3–21, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2178, 2023.
Frehner, M., Ling, A. H. M., and Gärtner-Roer, I.: Furrow-and-ridge morphology on rockglaciers explained by gravity-driven buckle folding: a case study from the Murtèl rockglacier (Switzerland), Permafrost Periglac., 26, 57–66, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1831, 2015.
Fuchs, M.C., Böhlert, R., Krbetschek, M., Preusser, F., and Egli, M.: Exploring the potential of luminescence methods for dating Alpine rock glaciers, Quatern. Geochronol., 18, 17–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2013.07.001, 2013.
Gärtner-Roer, I., Brunner, N., Delaloye, R., Haeberli, W., Kääb, A., and Thee, P.: Glacier–permafrost relations in a high-mountain environment: 5 decades of kinematic monitoring at the Gruben site, Swiss Alps, The Cryosphere, 16, 2083–2101, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2083-2022, 2022.
Geoestudios: Estabilidad y balance de glaciares de la cuenca del estero Yerba Loca 2013-2015, Fase 1. Anglo American Sur – Los Bronces, Capítulo 5 de 10, Glaciar de rocas Littoria, Informe, 2015.
Gruber, S. and Haeberli, W.: Permafrost in steep bedrock slopes and its temperature-related destabilization following climate change, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02S18, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000547, 2007.
Haeberli, W.: Eistemperaturen in den Alpen, Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, XI/2, 203–220, 1976.
Haeberli, W.: Creep of mountain permafrost: internal structure and flow of Alpine rock glaciers, Mitteilung VAW/ETHZ, 77, 142 pp., 1985.
Haeberli, W. and Fisch, W.: Electrical resistivity soundings of glacier beds: a test study on Grubengletscher, Wallis, Swiss Alps, J. Glaciol., 30, 373–376, 1984.
Haeberli, W. and Vonder Mühll, D.: On the characteristics and possible origins of ice in rock glacier permafrost, Z. Geomorphol., 104, 43–57, 1996.
Haeberli, W., Kääb, A., Vonder Mühll, D., and Teysseire, Ph.: Prevention of outburst floods from periglacial lakes at Grubengletscher, Valais, Swiss Alps, J. Glaciol., 47, 111–122, 2001.
Haeberli, W., Brandovà, D., Burga, C., Egli, M., Frauenfelder, R., Kääb, A., and Maisch, M.: Methods for absolute and relative age dating of rock-glacier surfaces in alpine permafrost, ICOP 2003 Permafrost: Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Permafrost, 21–25 July 2003, Zurich, Switzerland, A.A. Balkema Publishers, Vol. 1, 343–348, ISBN 90 5809 584 3, 2003.
Haeberli, W., Hallet, B., Arenson, L., Elconin, R., Humlum, O., Kääb, A., Kaufmann, V., Ladanyi, B., Matsuoka, N., Springman, S., and Vonder Mühll, D.: Permafrost creep and rock glacier dynamics, Permafrost Periglac., 17, 189–214, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.561, 2006.
Haeberli, W., Arenson, L. U., Wee, J., Hauck, C., and Mölg, N.: Author Comment 1, Reply to CC1, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1191-AC1, 2023.
Halla, C., Blöthe, J. H., Tapia Baldis, C., Trombotto Liaudat, D., Hilbich, C., Hauck, C., and Schrott, L.: Ice content and interannual water storage changes of an active rock glacier in the dry Andes of Argentina, The Cryosphere, 15, 1187–1213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, 2021.
Haq, M. A. and Baral, P.: Study of permafrost distribution in Sikkim Himalayas using Sentinel-2 satellite images and logistic regression modelling, Geomorphology, 333, 123–136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.02.024, 2019.
Harris, C., Arenson, L. U., Christiansen, H. H., Etzelmüller, B., Frauenfelder, R., Gruber, S., Haeberli, W., Hauck, C., Hoelzle, M., Humlum, O., Isaksen, K., Kääb, A., Kern-Lütschg, M. A., Lehning, M., Matsuoka, N., Murton, J. B., Nötzli, J., Phillips, M., Ross, N., Seppälä, M., Springman, S. M., and Vonder Mühll, D.: Permafrost and climate in Europe: Monitoring and modelling thermal, geomorphological and geotechnical responses, Earth-Sci. Rev., 92, 117–171, 2009.
Harrison, S.: Community comment 1, CC1 “Comment on egusphere-2023-1191”, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1191-CC1, 2023.
Hauck, C. and Kneisel, C.: Applied Geophysics in Periglacial Environments, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511535628, 2008.
Hausmann, H., Krainer, K., Brückl, E., and Mostler, W.: Internal structure and ice content of Reichenkar rock glacier (Stubai Alps, Austria) assessed by geophysical investigations, Permafrost Periglac., 18, 351–367, 2007.
Herring, T., Lewkowicz, A. G., Hauck, C., Hilbich, C., Mollaret, C., Oldenborger, G. A., Uhlemann, S., Farzamian, M., Calmels, F., and Scandroglio, R.: Best practices for using electrical resistivity tomography to investigate permafrost, Permafrost Periglac., 34, 494–512, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2207, 2023.
Hilbich, C., Hauck, C., Mollaret, C., Wainstein, P., and Arenson, L. U.: Towards accurate quantification of ice content in permafrost of the Central Andes – Part 1: Geophysics-based estimates from three different regions, The Cryosphere, 16, 1845–1872, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1845-2022, 2022.
Hoelzle, M., Hauck, C., Mathys, T., Noetzli, J., Pellet, C., and Scherler, M.: Long-term energy balance measurements at three different mountain permafrost sites in the Swiss Alps, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1531–1547, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1531-2022, 2022.
International Permafrost Association [IPA]: What is Permafrost?, https://www.permafrost.org/what-is-permafrost, last access: August 2023.
Iwata, S., Watanabe, O., and Fushimi, H.: Surface morphology in the ablation area of the Khumbu glacier, Seppyo, Journal of the Japanese Society of Snow and Ice, Special Issue 41, 9–17, https://doi.org/10.5331/seppyo.41.Special_9, 1980.
Janke, J. R. and Bolch, T.: Rock Glaciers, in: Treatise on Geomorphology, edited by: Shroder, J. F., 2nd Edn., Academic Press, Oxford, 75–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818234-5.00187-5, 2022.
Kääb, A.: Rock glaciers and protalus forms, in: The Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science 3, edited by: Elias, S. A., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 535–541, 2013.
Kääb, A. and Reichmuth, T.: Advance mechanisms of rock glaciers, Permafrost Periglac., 16, 187–193, 2005.
Kääb, A., Haeberli, W., and Gudmundsson, G. H.: Analysing the creep of mountain permafrost using high precision aerial photogrammetry: 25 years of monitoring Gruben rock glacier, Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 8, 409–426, 1997.
Kääb, A., Strozzi, T., Bolch, T., Caduff, R., Trefall, H., Stoffel, M., and Kokarev, A.: Inventory and changes of rock glacier creep speeds in Ile Alatau and Kungöy Ala-Too, northern Tien Shan, since the 1950s, The Cryosphere, 15, 927–949, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-927-2021, 2021.
Kane, D. L., Hinkel, K. M., Goering, D. J., Hinzman, L. D., and Outcalt, S. I.: Non-conductive heat transfer associated with frozen soils, Global Planet., 29, 275–292, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8181(01)00095-99, 2001.
Kaufmann, V., Kellerer-Pirklbauer, A., and Seier, G.: Conventional and UAV-Based aerial surveys for long-term monitoring (1954–2020) of a highly active rock glacier in Austria, Front. Remote Sens., 2, 732744, https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2021.732744, 2021.
Kirkbride, M. and Deline, P.: The formation of supraglacial debris covers by primary dispersal from transverse englacial debris bands, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 38, 1779–1792, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3416, 2013.
Kneib, M., Fyffe, C. L., Miles, E. S., Lindemann, S., Shaw, T. E., Buri, P., McCarthy, M., Ouvry, B., Vieli, A., Sato, Y., Kraaijenbrink, P. D. A., Thao, C., Molnar, P., and Pellicciotti, F.: Controls on ice cliff distribution and characteristics on debris-covered glaciers, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2022GL102444, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL102444, 2023.
Kneisel, C. and Kääb, A.: Mountain permafrost dynamics within a recently exposed glacier forefield inferred by a combined geomorphological, geophysical and photogrammetrical approach, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 32, 1797–1810, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1488, 2007.
Krainer, K., Bressan, D., Dietre, B. Haas, J. N., Hajdas, I., Lang, K., Mair, V., Nickus, U., Reidl, D., Thies, H., and Tonidandel, D.: A 10,300-year-old permafrost core from the active rock glacier Lazaun, southern Ötztal Alps (South Tyrol, northern Italy), Quaternary Res., 83, 324–335, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2014.12.005, 2014.
Krautblatter, M., Funk, D., and Günzel, F. K.: Why permafrost rocks become unstable: A rock-ice-mechanical model in time and space, Earth Surf. Proc. Land, 38, 876–887, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3374, 2013.
Kummert, M., Bodin, X., Braillard, L., and Delaloye, R.: Pluri-decadal evolution of rock glaciers surface velocity and its impacts on sediment export rates towards high-alpine torrents, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 46, 3217–3227, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.5231, 2021.
Kunz, J., Ullmann, T., and Kneisel, C.: Internal structure and recent dynamics of a moraine complex in an alpine glacier forefield revealed by geophysical surveying and Sentinel-1 InSAR time series, Geomorphology, 398, 108052, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.108052, 2021.
Li, M., Yang, Y., Peng, Z., and Liu, G.: Assessment of rock glaciers and their water storage in Guokalariju, Tibetan Plateau, The Cryosphere, 18, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1-2024, 2024.
Mamot, P., Weber, S., Eppinger, S., and Krautblatter, M.: A temperature-dependent mechanical model to assess the stability of degrading permafrost rock slopes, Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 1125–1151, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-1125-2021, 2021.
Marangunic, C., Ugalde, F., Apey, A., Armendáris, I., Bustamante, M., and Peralta, C.: Glaciares en la Cuenca alta del rio Mapocho: Variaciones y caracteristicas principales, Ecosistemas de Montaña de la Cuenca Alta del Río Mapocho, Capítolo 2, Seccion 1, edited by: Fabiola Orrego, M., ISBN 978-956-404-945-8, 460-80, 2021.
McCarthy, M., Miles, M., Kneib, M., Buri, P., Fugger, S., and Pellicciotti, F.: Supraglacial debris thickness and supply rate in High-Mountain Asia, Commun. Earth Environ., 3, 269, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00588-2, 2022.
Merz, K., Maurer, H., Buchli, T., Horstmeyer, H., Green, A. G., and Springman, S. M.: Evaluation of ground-based and helicopter ground-penetrating radar data acquired across an Alpine rock glacier, Permafrost Periglac., 26, 13–27, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1836, 2015.
Miles, K., Hubbard, B., Quincey, D. J., Miles, E. S., Sherpa, T. C., Rowan, A. V., and Doyle, S. H.: Polythermal structure of a Himalayan debris-covered glacier revealed by borehole thermometry, Sci. Rep., 8, 16825, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-34327-5, 2018.
Miles, K., Hubbard, B., Miles, E. S., Quincey, D. J., Rowan, A.V., Kirkbride, M., and Hornsey, J.: Continuous borehole optical televiewing reveals variable englacial debris concentrations at Khumbu Glacier, Nepal, Commun. Earth Environ., 2, 12, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-020-00070-x, 2021.
Mölg, N., Ferguson, J., Bolch, T., and Vieli, A.: On the influence of debris cover on glacier morphology: How high-relief structures evolve from smooth surfaces, Geomorphology, 357, 107092, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107092, 2020.
Mollaret, C., Hilbich, C., Pellet, C., Flores-Orozco, A., Delaloye, R., and Hauck, C.: Mountain permafrost degradation documented through a network of permanent electrical resistivity tomography sites, The Cryosphere, 13, 2557–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, 2019.
Monnier, S. and Kinnard, C.: Pluri-decadal (1955–2014) evolution of glacier–rock glacier transitional landforms in the central Andes of Chile (30–33° S), Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 493–509, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-493-2017, 2017.
Nakawo, M., Iwata, S., Watanabe, O., and Yoshida, M.: Processes which distribute supraglacial debris on the Khumbu Glacier, Nepal Himalaya, Ann. Glaciol., 8, 129–131, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0260305500001294, 1986.
Neckel, N., Loibl, D., and Rankl, M.: Recent slowdown and thinning of debris-covered glaciers in south-eastern Tibet, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 464, 95–102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2017.02.008, 2017.
Nesje, A., Matthews, J. A., Linge, H., Bredal, M., Wilson, P., and Winkler, S.: New evidence for active talus-foot rock glaciers at Øyberget, southern Norway, and their development during the Holocene, Holocene, 31, 1786–1796, https://doi.org/10.1177/09596836211033226, 2021.
Nield, D. A. and Bejan, A.: Convection in Porous Media, Cham, Springer, ISBN 978-3-319-49561-3, 2017.
Noetzli, J., Arenson, L. U., Bast, A., Beutel, J., Delaloye, R., Farinotti, D., Gruber, S., Gubler, H., Haeberli, W., Hasler, A., Hauck, C., Hiller, M., Hoelzle, M., Lambiel, C., Pellet, C., Springman, S. M., Vonder Muehll, D., and Phillips, M.: Best practice for measuring permafrost temperature in boreholes based on the experience in the Swiss Alps, Front. Earth Scie., 9, 607875, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.607875, 2021.
Pavoni, M., Sirch, F., and Boaga, J.: Electrical and electromagnetic geophysical prospecting for the monitoring of rock glaciers in the Dolomites, Northeast Italy, Sensors, 21, 1294, https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041294, 2021.
PERMOS: Swiss Permafrost Bulletin 2022, edited by: Noetzli, J. and Pellet, C., No. 4, 23 pp., https://doi.org/10.13093/permos-bull-2023, 2023.
Phillips, M., Haberkorn, A., Kenner, R. and Nötzli, J.: Current changes in mountain permafrost based on observations in the Swiss Alps, Swiss-Bulletin für angewandte Geologie, 25, 53–63, 2020.
RGIK: Guidelines for inventorying rock glaciers: baseline and practical concepts (version 1.0), IPA Action Group Rock glacier inventories and kinematics, 25 pp., https://doi.org/10.51363/unifr.srr.2023.002, 2023.
Roer, I., Haeberli, W., Avian, M., Kaufmann, V., Delaloye, R., Lambiel, C., and Kääb, A.: Observations and considerations on destabilizing active rock glaciers in the European Alps, in: Ninth International Conference on Permafrost, edited by: Kane, D. L. and Hinkel, K. M., Institute of Northern Engineering, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Vol. 2, 1505–1510, https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-6082, 2008.
Shokory, J. A. N. and Lane, S.: Patterns and drivers of glacier debris-cover development in the Afghanistan Hindu Kush Himalaya, J. Glaciol., 69, 1260–1274, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2023.14, 2023.
Shugar, D. H., Jacquemart, M., Shean, D., et al.: A massive rock and ice avalanche caused the 2021 disaster at Chamoli, Indian Himalaya, Science, 373, 300–306, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abh4455, 2021.
Springman, S., Arenson, L., Yamamoto, Y., Maurer, H., Kos, A., Buchli, T., and Derungs, G: Multidisciplinary investigations on three rock glaciers in the Swiss Alps: Legacies and future perspectives, Geogr. Ann. A, 94, 215–243, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0459.2012.00464.x, 2012.
Thibert, E. and Bodin, X.: Changes in surface velocities over four decades on the Laurichard rock glacier (French Alps), Permafrost Periglac., 33, 323–335, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2159, 2022.
Thompson, S., Benn, D. I., Mertes, J., and Luckman, A.: Stagnation and mass loss on a Himalayan debris-covered glacier: Processes, patterns and rates, J. Glaciol., 62, 467–485, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.37, 2016.
Vivero, S., Bodin, X., Farías-Barahona, D., MacDonell, S., Schaffer, N., Robson, B. A., and Lambiel, C.: Combination of aerial, satellite, and UAV photogrammetry for quantifying rock glacier kinematics in the Dry Andes of Chile (30° S) since the 1950s, Front. Remote Sens., 2, 784015, https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2021.784015, 2021.
Wahrhaftig, C. and Cox, A.: Rock glaciers in the Alaska Range, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 70, 383–436, 1959.
Wee, J. and Delaloye, R.: Post-glacial dynamics of an alpine Little Ice Age glacitectonized frozen landform (Aget, western Swiss Alps), Permafrost Periglac., 33, 370–385, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2158, 2022.
Wee, J., Hauck, C., and Lambiel, C.: Assessing the properties of ground ice and its influence on surface dynamics at Gruben, Swiss Alps, Swiss Geoscience Meeting 18–20 November 2022, Lausanne, Switzerland, Symposium 11 Geomorphology, Abstract 11.8, p. 13, 2022.
Whalley, W. B.: Gruben glacier and rock glacier, Wallis, Switzerland: Glacier ice exposures and their interpretation., Geogr. Ann. A, 102, 141–161, https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.2020.1765578, 2020.
Whalley, W. B. and Azizi, F.: Community Comment 2, CC2 “Comment on egusphere-2023-1191”, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1191-CC2, 2023.
Wicky, J. and Hauck, C.: Air convection in the active layer of rock glaciers, Front. Earth Sci., 8, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00335, 2020.
Short summary
Rock glaciers in ice-rich permafrost can be discriminated from debris-covered glaciers. The key physical phenomenon relates to the tight mechanical coupling between the moving frozen body at depth and the surface layer of debris in the case of rock glaciers, as opposed to the virtually inexistent coupling in the case of surface ice with a debris cover. Contact zones of surface ice with subsurface ice in permafrost constitute diffuse landforms beyond either–or-type landform classification.
Rock glaciers in ice-rich permafrost can be discriminated from debris-covered glaciers. The key...
