Articles | Volume 16, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-807-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-807-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
10 Mar 2022
Research article |
| 10 Mar 2022
| 10 Mar 2022
Multi-decadal retreat of marine-terminating outlet glaciers in northwest and central-west Greenland
Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
Ian Joughin
Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
Related authors
Twila A. Moon, Benjamin Cohen, Taryn E. Black, Kristin L. Laidre, Harry L. Stern, and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 18, 4845–4872, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4845-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4845-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The complex geomorphology of southeast Greenland (SEG) creates dynamic fjord habitats for top marine predators, featuring glacier-derived floating ice, pack and landfast sea ice, and freshwater flux. We study the physical environment of SEG fjords, focusing on surface ice conditions, to provide a regional characterization that supports biological research. As Arctic warming persists, SEG may serve as a long-term refugium for ice-dependent wildlife due to the persistence of regional ice sheets.
Taryn E. Black and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 17, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The frontal positions of most ice-sheet-based glaciers in Greenland vary seasonally. On average, these glaciers begin retreating in May and begin advancing in October, and the difference between their most advanced and most retreated positions is 220 m. The timing may be related to the timing of melt on the ice sheet, and the seasonal length variation may be related to glacier speed. These seasonal variations can affect glacier behavior and, consequently, how much ice is lost from the ice sheet.
Sophie Goliber, Taryn Black, Ginny Catania, James M. Lea, Helene Olsen, Daniel Cheng, Suzanne Bevan, Anders Bjørk, Charlie Bunce, Stephen Brough, J. Rachel Carr, Tom Cowton, Alex Gardner, Dominik Fahrner, Emily Hill, Ian Joughin, Niels J. Korsgaard, Adrian Luckman, Twila Moon, Tavi Murray, Andrew Sole, Michael Wood, and Enze Zhang
The Cryosphere, 16, 3215–3233, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3215-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3215-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Terminus traces have been used to understand how Greenland's glaciers have changed over time; however, manual digitization is time-intensive, and a lack of coordination leads to duplication of efforts. We have compiled a dataset of over 39 000 terminus traces for 278 glaciers for scientific and machine learning applications. We also provide an overview of an updated version of the Google Earth Engine Digitization Tool (GEEDiT), which has been developed specifically for the Greenland Ice Sheet.
Andrew O. Hoffman, Knut Christianson, Ching-Yao Lai, Ian Joughin, Nicholas Holschuh, Elizabeth Case, Jonathan Kingslake, and the GHOST science team
The Cryosphere, 19, 1353–1372, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1353-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1353-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We use satellite and ice-penetrating radar technology to segment crevasses in the Amundsen Sea Embayment. Inspection of satellite time series reveals inland expansion of crevasses where surface stresses have increased. We develop a simple model for the strength of densifying snow and show that these crevasses are likely restricted to the near surface. This result bridges discrepancies between satellite and lab experiments and reveals the importance of porosity on surface crevasse formation.
Grace P. Gjerde, Mark D. Behn, Laura A. Stevens, Sarah B. Das, and Ian R. Joughin
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3700, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3700, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We characterize the magnitude and variability of transient speed-ups across a GPS array in western Greenland in 2011 and 2012. While we find no relationship between speed-up and runoff, late-season events have larger speed-up amplitudes and more spatially uniform patterns of speed-up across the GPS array compared to early season events. These results reflect an evolution toward a less efficient drainage system late in the melt season, with a pervasive system of open surface-to-bed conduits.
Allison M. Chartrand, Ian M. Howat, Ian R. Joughin, and Benjamin E. Smith
The Cryosphere, 18, 4971–4992, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4971-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4971-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study uses high-resolution remote-sensing data to show that shrinking of the West Antarctic Thwaites Glacier’s ice shelf (floating extension) is exacerbated by several sub-ice-shelf meltwater channels that form as the glacier transitions from full contact with the seafloor to fully floating. In mapping these channels, the position of the transition zone, and thinning rates of the Thwaites Glacier, this work elucidates important processes driving its rapid contribution to sea level rise.
Twila A. Moon, Benjamin Cohen, Taryn E. Black, Kristin L. Laidre, Harry L. Stern, and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 18, 4845–4872, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4845-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4845-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The complex geomorphology of southeast Greenland (SEG) creates dynamic fjord habitats for top marine predators, featuring glacier-derived floating ice, pack and landfast sea ice, and freshwater flux. We study the physical environment of SEG fjords, focusing on surface ice conditions, to provide a regional characterization that supports biological research. As Arctic warming persists, SEG may serve as a long-term refugium for ice-dependent wildlife due to the persistence of regional ice sheets.
Ian Joughin, Daniel Shapero, and Pierre Dutrieux
The Cryosphere, 18, 2583–2601, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2583-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2583-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers are losing ice to the ocean rapidly as warmer water melts their floating ice shelves. Models help determine how much such glaciers will contribute to sea level. We find that ice loss varies in response to how much melting the ice shelves are subjected to. Our estimated losses are also sensitive to how much the friction beneath the glaciers is reduced as it goes afloat. Melt-forced sea level rise from these glaciers is likely to be less than 10 cm by 2300.
Taryn E. Black and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 17, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The frontal positions of most ice-sheet-based glaciers in Greenland vary seasonally. On average, these glaciers begin retreating in May and begin advancing in October, and the difference between their most advanced and most retreated positions is 220 m. The timing may be related to the timing of melt on the ice sheet, and the seasonal length variation may be related to glacier speed. These seasonal variations can affect glacier behavior and, consequently, how much ice is lost from the ice sheet.
Sophie Goliber, Taryn Black, Ginny Catania, James M. Lea, Helene Olsen, Daniel Cheng, Suzanne Bevan, Anders Bjørk, Charlie Bunce, Stephen Brough, J. Rachel Carr, Tom Cowton, Alex Gardner, Dominik Fahrner, Emily Hill, Ian Joughin, Niels J. Korsgaard, Adrian Luckman, Twila Moon, Tavi Murray, Andrew Sole, Michael Wood, and Enze Zhang
The Cryosphere, 16, 3215–3233, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3215-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3215-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Terminus traces have been used to understand how Greenland's glaciers have changed over time; however, manual digitization is time-intensive, and a lack of coordination leads to duplication of efforts. We have compiled a dataset of over 39 000 terminus traces for 278 glaciers for scientific and machine learning applications. We also provide an overview of an updated version of the Google Earth Engine Digitization Tool (GEEDiT), which has been developed specifically for the Greenland Ice Sheet.
Andrew O. Hoffman, Knut Christianson, Daniel Shapero, Benjamin E. Smith, and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 14, 4603–4609, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4603-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4603-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The West Antarctic Ice Sheet has long been considered geometrically prone to collapse, and Thwaites Glacier, the largest glacier in the Amundsen Sea, is likely in the early stages of disintegration. Using observations of Thwaites Glacier velocity and elevation change, we show that the transport of ~2 km3 of water beneath Thwaites Glacier has only a small and transient effect on glacier speed relative to ongoing thinning driven by ocean melt.
David A. Lilien, Ian Joughin, Benjamin Smith, and Noel Gourmelen
The Cryosphere, 13, 2817–2834, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2817-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2817-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We used a number of computer simulations to understand the recent retreat of a rapidly changing group of glaciers in West Antarctica. We found that significant melt underneath the floating extensions of the glaciers, driven by relatively warm ocean water at depth, was likely needed to cause the large retreat that has been observed. If melt continues around current rates, retreat is likely to continue through the coming century and extend beyond the present-day drainage area of these glaciers.
Related subject area
Discipline: Ice sheets | Subject: Greenland
Historically consistent mass loss projections of the Greenland ice sheet
A comparison of supraglacial meltwater features throughout contrasting melt seasons: southwest Greenland
Ice speed of a Greenlandic tidewater glacier modulated by tide, melt, and rain
A topographically controlled tipping point for complete Greenland ice sheet melt
Projections of precipitation and temperatures in Greenland and the impact of spatially uniform anomalies on the evolution of the ice sheet
Impacts of differing melt regimes on satellite radar waveforms and elevation retrievals
The future of Upernavik Isstrøm through the ISMIP6 framework: sensitivity analysis and Bayesian calibration of ensemble prediction
Brief communication: Storstrømmen glacier, Northeast Greenland, primed for end-of-decade surge
Firn seismic anisotropy in the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream from ambient-noise surface waves
First results of the polar regional climate model RACMO2.4
Calving front monitoring at a subseasonal resolution: a deep learning application for Greenland glaciers
Mapping the vertical heterogeneity of Greenland's firn from 2011–2019 using airborne radar and laser altimetry
Subglacial valleys preserved in the highlands of south and east Greenland record restricted ice extent during past warmer climates
Coupling MAR (Modèle Atmosphérique Régional) with PISM (Parallel Ice Sheet Model) mitigates the positive melt–elevation feedback
Cloud- and ice-albedo feedbacks drive greater Greenland Ice Sheet sensitivity to warming in CMIP6 than in CMIP5
Evaluating different geothermal heat-flow maps as basal boundary conditions during spin-up of the Greenland ice sheet
Seasonal evolution of the supraglacial drainage network at Humboldt Glacier, northern Greenland, between 2016 and 2020
Choice of observation type affects Bayesian calibration of Greenland Ice Sheet model simulations
Effects of extreme melt events on ice flow and sea level rise of the Greenland Ice Sheet
Precursor of disintegration of Greenland's largest floating ice tongue
An evaluation of a physics-based firn model and a semi-empirical firn model across the Greenland Ice Sheet (1980–2020)
Subglacial lake activity beneath the ablation zone of the Greenland Ice Sheet
The control of short-term ice mélange weakening episodes on calving activity at major Greenland outlet glaciers
Weekly to monthly terminus variability of Greenland's marine-terminating outlet glaciers
The contribution of Humboldt Glacier, northern Greenland, to sea-level rise through 2100 constrained by recent observations of speedup and retreat
Observed mechanism for sustained glacier retreat and acceleration in response to ocean warming around Greenland
Assessing bare-ice albedo simulated by MAR over the Greenland ice sheet (2000–2021) and implications for meltwater production estimates
Drill-site selection for cosmogenic-nuclide exposure dating of the bed of the Greenland Ice Sheet
A new Level 4 multi-sensor ice surface temperature product for the Greenland Ice Sheet
High-resolution imaging of supraglacial hydrological features on the Greenland Ice Sheet with NASA's Airborne Topographic Mapper (ATM) instrument suite
The impact of climate oscillations on the surface energy budget over the Greenland Ice Sheet in a changing climate
GBaTSv2: a revised synthesis of the likely basal thermal state of the Greenland Ice Sheet
Unravelling the long-term, locally heterogenous response of Greenland glaciers observed in archival photography
Simulating the Holocene deglaciation across a marine-terminating portion of southwestern Greenland in response to marine and atmospheric forcings
Comparison of ice dynamics using full-Stokes and Blatter–Pattyn approximation: application to the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream
Melt probabilities and surface temperature trends on the Greenland ice sheet using a Gaussian mixture model
Modelling the effect of submarine iceberg melting on glacier-adjacent water properties
Sources of uncertainty in Greenland surface mass balance in the 21st century
Proper orthogonal decomposition of ice velocity identifies drivers of flow variability at Sermeq Kujalleq (Jakobshavn Isbræ)
Brief communication: A roadmap towards credible projections of ice sheet contribution to sea level
Automated detection and analysis of surface calving waves with a terrestrial radar interferometer at the front of Eqip Sermia, Greenland
Generation and fate of basal meltwater during winter, western Greenland Ice Sheet
Modeling the Greenland englacial stratigraphy
Upstream flow effects revealed in the EastGRIP ice core using Monte Carlo inversion of a two-dimensional ice-flow model
Indication of high basal melting at the EastGRIP drill site on the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream
Brief communication: Reduction in the future Greenland ice sheet surface melt with the help of solar geoengineering
Contrasting regional variability of buried meltwater extent over 2 years across the Greenland Ice Sheet
Sensitivity of the Greenland surface mass and energy balance to uncertainties in key model parameters
Surface melting over the Greenland ice sheet derived from enhanced resolution passive microwave brightness temperatures (1979–2019)
Impact of updated radiative transfer scheme in snow and ice in RACMO2.3p3 on the surface mass and energy budget of the Greenland ice sheet
Charlotte Rahlves, Heiko Goelzer, Andreas Born, and Petra M. Langebroek
The Cryosphere, 19, 1205–1220, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1205-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1205-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Mass loss from the Greenland ice sheet significantly contributes to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities globally. To improve future sea-level projections, we simulated ice sheet behavior until 2100, initializing the model with observed geometry and using various climate models. Predictions indicate a sea-level rise of 32 to 228 mm by 2100, with climate model uncertainty being the main source of variability in projections.
Emily Glen, Amber Leeson, Alison F. Banwell, Jennifer Maddalena, Diarmuid Corr, Olivia Atkins, Brice Noël, and Malcolm McMillan
The Cryosphere, 19, 1047–1066, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1047-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1047-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We compare surface meltwater features from optical satellite imagery in the Russell–Leverett glacier catchment during high (2019) and low (2018) melt years. In the high melt year, features appear at higher elevations, meltwater systems are more connected, small lakes are more frequent, and slush is more widespread. These findings provide insights into how a warming climate, where high melt years become common, could alter meltwater distribution and dynamics on the Greenland Ice Sheet.
Shin Sugiyama, Shun Tsutaki, Daiki Sakakibara, Izumi Asaji, Ken Kondo, Yefan Wang, Evgeny Podolskiy, Guillaume Jouvet, and Martin Funk
The Cryosphere, 19, 525–540, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-525-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-525-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We report flow speed variations near the front of a tidewater glacier in Greenland. Ice flow near the glacier front is crucial for the mass loss of the Greenland ice sheet, but in situ data are hard to obtain. Our unique in situ GPS data revealed fine details of short-term speed variations associated with melting, ocean tides, and rain. The results are important for understanding the response of tidewater glaciers to changing environments, such as warming, more frequent rain, and ice thinning.
Michele Petrini, Meike D. W. Scherrenberg, Laura Muntjewerf, Miren Vizcaino, Raymond Sellevold, Gunter R. Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, and Heiko Goelzer
The Cryosphere, 19, 63–81, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-63-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-63-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Anthropogenic warming is causing accelerated Greenland ice sheet melt. Here, we use a computer model to understand how prolonged warming and ice melt could threaten ice sheet stability. We find a threshold beyond which Greenland will lose more than 80 % of its ice over several thousand years, due to the interaction of surface and solid-Earth processes. Nearly complete Greenland ice sheet melt occurs when the ice margin disconnects from a region of high elevation in western Greenland.
Nils Bochow, Anna Poltronieri, and Niklas Boers
The Cryosphere, 18, 5825–5863, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5825-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5825-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Using the latest climate models, we update the understanding of how the Greenland ice sheet responds to climate changes. We found that precipitation and temperature changes in Greenland vary across different regions. Our findings suggest that using uniform estimates for temperature and precipitation for modelling the response of the ice sheet can overestimate ice loss in Greenland. Therefore, this study highlights the need for spatially resolved data in predicting the ice sheet's future.
Alexander C. Ronan, Robert L. Hawley, and Jonathan W. Chipman
The Cryosphere, 18, 5673–5683, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5673-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5673-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We generate a 2010–2021 time series of CryoSat-2 waveform shape metrics on the Greenland Ice Sheet, and we compare it to CryoSat-2 elevation data to investigate the reliability of two algorithms used to derive elevations from the SIRAL radar altimeter. Retracked elevations are found to depend on a waveform's leading-edge width in the dry-snow zone. The study indicates that retracking algorithms must consider significant climate events and snow conditions when assessing elevation change.
Eliot Jager, Fabien Gillet-Chaulet, Nicolas Champollion, Romain Millan, Heiko Goelzer, and Jérémie Mouginot
The Cryosphere, 18, 5519–5550, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5519-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5519-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Inspired by a previous intercomparison framework, our study better constrains uncertainties in glacier evolution using an innovative method to validate Bayesian calibration. Upernavik Isstrøm, one of Greenland's largest glaciers, has lost significant mass since 1985. By integrating observational data, climate models, human emissions, and internal model parameters, we project its evolution until 2100. We show that future human emissions are the main source of uncertainty in 2100, making up half.
Jonas Kvist Andersen, Rasmus Probst Meyer, Flora Salome Huiban, Mads Lykke Dømgaard, Romain Millan, and Anders Anker Bjørk
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3382, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3382, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Storstrømmen Glacier in northeast Greenland goes through cycles of sudden flow speed-ups (known as surges) followed by long quiet phases. Currently in its quiet phase, recent measurements suggest it may be nearing conditions for a new surge, possibly between 2027 and 2040. We also observed several lake drainages that caused brief increases in glacier flow but did not trigger a surge. Continued monitoring is essential to understand how these processes influence glacier behavior.
Emma Pearce, Dimitri Zigone, Coen Hofstede, Andreas Fichtner, Joachim Rimpot, Sune Olander Rasmussen, Johannes Freitag, and Olaf Eisen
The Cryosphere, 18, 4917–4932, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4917-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4917-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study near EastGRIP camp in Greenland shows varying firn properties by direction (crucial for studying ice stream stability, structure, surface mass balance, and past climate conditions). We used dispersion curve analysis of Love and Rayleigh waves to show firn is nonuniform along and across the flow of an ice stream due to wind patterns, seasonal variability, and the proximity to the edge of the ice stream. This method better informs firn structure, advancing ice stream understanding.
Christiaan T. van Dalum, Willem Jan van de Berg, Srinidhi N. Gadde, Maurice van Tiggelen, Tijmen van der Drift, Erik van Meijgaard, Lambertus H. van Ulft, and Michiel R. van den Broeke
The Cryosphere, 18, 4065–4088, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4065-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4065-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new version of the polar Regional Atmospheric Climate Model (RACMO), version 2.4p1, and show first results for Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic. We provide an overview of all changes and investigate the impact that they have on the climate of polar regions. By comparing the results with observations and the output from the previous model version, we show that the model performs well regarding the surface mass balance of the ice sheets and near-surface climate.
Erik Loebel, Mirko Scheinert, Martin Horwath, Angelika Humbert, Julia Sohn, Konrad Heidler, Charlotte Liebezeit, and Xiao Xiang Zhu
The Cryosphere, 18, 3315–3332, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3315-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3315-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Comprehensive datasets of calving-front changes are essential for studying and modeling outlet glaciers. Current records are limited in temporal resolution due to manual delineation. We use deep learning to automatically delineate calving fronts for 23 glaciers in Greenland. Resulting time series resolve long-term, seasonal, and subseasonal patterns. We discuss the implications of our results and provide the cryosphere community with a data product and an implementation of our processing system.
Anja Rutishauser, Kirk M. Scanlan, Baptiste Vandecrux, Nanna B. Karlsson, Nicolas Jullien, Andreas P. Ahlstrøm, Robert S. Fausto, and Penelope How
The Cryosphere, 18, 2455–2472, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2455-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2455-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Greenland Ice Sheet interior is covered by a layer of firn, which is important for surface meltwater runoff and contributions to global sea-level rise. Here, we combine airborne radar sounding and laser altimetry measurements to delineate vertically homogeneous and heterogeneous firn. Our results reveal changes in firn between 2011–2019, aligning well with known climatic events. This approach can be used to outline firn areas primed for significantly changing future meltwater runoff.
Guy J. G. Paxman, Stewart S. R. Jamieson, Aisling M. Dolan, and Michael J. Bentley
The Cryosphere, 18, 1467–1493, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1467-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1467-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study uses airborne radar data and satellite imagery to map mountainous topography hidden beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet. We find that the landscape records the former extent and configuration of ice masses that were restricted to areas of high topography. Computer models of ice flow indicate that valley glaciers eroded this landscape millions of years ago when local air temperatures were at least 4 °C higher than today and Greenland’s ice volume was < 10 % of that of the modern ice sheet.
Alison Delhasse, Johanna Beckmann, Christoph Kittel, and Xavier Fettweis
The Cryosphere, 18, 633–651, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-633-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-633-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Aiming to study the long-term influence of an extremely warm climate in the Greenland Ice Sheet contribution to sea level rise, a new regional atmosphere–ice sheet model setup was established. The coupling, explicitly considering the melt–elevation feedback, is compared to an offline method to consider this feedback. We highlight mitigation of the feedback due to local changes in atmospheric circulation with changes in surface topography, making the offline correction invalid on the margins.
Idunn Aamnes Mostue, Stefan Hofer, Trude Storelvmo, and Xavier Fettweis
The Cryosphere, 18, 475–488, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-475-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-475-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The latest generation of climate models (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 – CMIP6) warm more over Greenland and the Arctic and thus also project a larger mass loss from the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) compared to the previous generation of climate models (CMIP5). Our work suggests for the first time that part of the greater mass loss in CMIP6 over the GrIS is driven by a difference in the surface mass balance sensitivity from a change in cloud representation in the CMIP6 models.
Tong Zhang, William Colgan, Agnes Wansing, Anja Løkkegaard, Gunter Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, and Cunde Xiao
The Cryosphere, 18, 387–402, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-387-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-387-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The geothermal heat flux determines how much heat enters from beneath the ice sheet, and thus impacts the temperature and the flow of the ice sheet. In this study we investigate how much geothermal heat flux impacts the initialization of the Greenland ice sheet. We use the Community Ice Sheet Model with two different initialization methods. We find a non-trivial influence of the choice of heat flow boundary conditions on the ice sheet initializations for further designs of ice sheet modeling.
Lauren D. Rawlins, David M. Rippin, Andrew J. Sole, Stephen J. Livingstone, and Kang Yang
The Cryosphere, 17, 4729–4750, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4729-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4729-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We map and quantify surface rivers and lakes at Humboldt Glacier to examine seasonal evolution and provide new insights of network configuration and behaviour. A widespread supraglacial drainage network exists, expanding up the glacier as seasonal runoff increases. Large interannual variability affects the areal extent of this network, controlled by high- vs. low-melt years, with late summer network persistence likely preconditioning the surface for earlier drainage activity the following year.
Denis Felikson, Sophie Nowicki, Isabel Nias, Beata Csatho, Anton Schenk, Michael J. Croteau, and Bryant Loomis
The Cryosphere, 17, 4661–4673, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4661-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4661-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We narrow the spread in model simulations of the Greenland Ice Sheet using velocity change, dynamic thickness change, and mass change observations. We find that the type of observation chosen can lead to significantly different calibrated probability distributions. Further work is required to understand how to best calibrate ensembles of ice sheet simulations because this will improve probability distributions of projected sea-level rise, which is crucial for coastal planning and adaptation.
Johanna Beckmann and Ricarda Winkelmann
The Cryosphere, 17, 3083–3099, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3083-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3083-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Over the past decade, Greenland has experienced several extreme melt events.
With progressing climate change, such extreme melt events can be expected to occur more frequently and potentially become more severe and persistent.
Strong melt events may considerably contribute to Greenland's mass loss, which in turn strongly determines future sea level rise. How important these extreme melt events could be in the future is assessed in this study for the first time.
Angelika Humbert, Veit Helm, Niklas Neckel, Ole Zeising, Martin Rückamp, Shfaqat Abbas Khan, Erik Loebel, Jörg Brauchle, Karsten Stebner, Dietmar Gross, Rabea Sondershaus, and Ralf Müller
The Cryosphere, 17, 2851–2870, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2851-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2851-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The largest floating glacier mass in Greenland, the 79° N Glacier, is showing signs of instability. We investigate how crack formation at the glacier's calving front has changed over the last decades by using satellite imagery and airborne data. The calving front is about to lose contact to stabilizing ice islands. Simulations show that the glacier will accelerate as a result of this, leading to an increase in ice discharge of more than 5.1 % if its calving front retreats by 46 %.
Megan Thompson-Munson, Nander Wever, C. Max Stevens, Jan T. M. Lenaerts, and Brooke Medley
The Cryosphere, 17, 2185–2209, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2185-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2185-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
To better understand the Greenland Ice Sheet’s firn layer and its ability to buffer sea level rise by storing meltwater, we analyze firn density observations and output from two firn models. We find that both models, one physics-based and one semi-empirical, simulate realistic density and firn air content when compared to observations. The models differ in their representation of firn air content, highlighting the uncertainty in physical processes and the paucity of deep-firn measurements.
Yubin Fan, Chang-Qing Ke, Xiaoyi Shen, Yao Xiao, Stephen J. Livingstone, and Andrew J. Sole
The Cryosphere, 17, 1775–1786, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1775-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1775-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We used the new-generation ICESat-2 altimeter to detect and monitor active subglacial lakes in unprecedented spatiotemporal detail. We created a new inventory of 18 active subglacial lakes as well as their elevation and volume changes during 2019–2020, which provides an improved understanding of how the Greenland subglacial water system operates and how these lakes are fed by water from the ice surface.
Adrien Wehrlé, Martin P. Lüthi, and Andreas Vieli
The Cryosphere, 17, 309–326, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-309-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-309-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We characterized short-lived episodes of ice mélange weakening (IMW) at the front of three major Greenland outlet glaciers. Through a continuous detection at the front of Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier during the June-to-September period from 2018 to 2021, we found that 87 % of the IMW episodes occurred prior to a large-scale calving event. Using a simple model for ice mélange motion, we further characterized the IMW process as self-sustained through the existence of an IMW–calving feedback.
Taryn E. Black and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 17, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The frontal positions of most ice-sheet-based glaciers in Greenland vary seasonally. On average, these glaciers begin retreating in May and begin advancing in October, and the difference between their most advanced and most retreated positions is 220 m. The timing may be related to the timing of melt on the ice sheet, and the seasonal length variation may be related to glacier speed. These seasonal variations can affect glacier behavior and, consequently, how much ice is lost from the ice sheet.
Trevor R. Hillebrand, Matthew J. Hoffman, Mauro Perego, Stephen F. Price, and Ian M. Howat
The Cryosphere, 16, 4679–4700, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4679-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4679-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We estimate that Humboldt Glacier, northern Greenland, will contribute 5.2–8.7 mm to global sea level in 2007–2100, using an ensemble of model simulations constrained by observations of glacier retreat and speedup. This is a significant fraction of the 40–140 mm from the whole Greenland Ice Sheet predicted by the recent ISMIP6 multi-model ensemble, suggesting that calibrating models against observed velocity changes could result in higher estimates of 21st century sea-level rise from Greenland.
Evan Carnahan, Ginny Catania, and Timothy C. Bartholomaus
The Cryosphere, 16, 4305–4317, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4305-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4305-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Greenland Ice Sheet primarily loses mass through increased ice discharge. We find changes in discharge from outlet glaciers are initiated by ocean warming, which causes a change in the balance of forces resisting gravity and leads to acceleration. Vulnerable conditions for sustained retreat and acceleration are predetermined by the glacier-fjord geometry and exist around Greenland, suggesting increases in ice discharge may be sustained into the future despite a pause in ocean warming.
Raf M. Antwerpen, Marco Tedesco, Xavier Fettweis, Patrick Alexander, and Willem Jan van de Berg
The Cryosphere, 16, 4185–4199, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4185-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4185-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The ice on Greenland has been melting more rapidly over the last few years. Most of this melt comes from the exposure of ice when the overlying snow melts. This ice is darker than snow and absorbs more sunlight, leading to more melt. It remains challenging to accurately simulate the brightness of the ice. We show that the color of ice simulated by Modèle Atmosphérique Régional (MAR) is too bright. We then show that this means that MAR may underestimate how fast the Greenland ice is melting.
Jason P. Briner, Caleb K. Walcott, Joerg M. Schaefer, Nicolás E. Young, Joseph A. MacGregor, Kristin Poinar, Benjamin A. Keisling, Sridhar Anandakrishnan, Mary R. Albert, Tanner Kuhl, and Grant Boeckmann
The Cryosphere, 16, 3933–3948, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3933-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3933-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The 7.4 m of sea level equivalent stored as Greenland ice is getting smaller every year. The uncertain trajectory of ice loss could be better understood with knowledge of the ice sheet's response to past climate change. Within the bedrock below the present-day ice sheet is an archive of past ice-sheet history. We analyze all available data from Greenland to create maps showing where on the ice sheet scientists can drill, using currently available drills, to obtain sub-ice materials.
Ioanna Karagali, Magnus Barfod Suhr, Ruth Mottram, Pia Nielsen-Englyst, Gorm Dybkjær, Darren Ghent, and Jacob L. Høyer
The Cryosphere, 16, 3703–3721, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3703-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3703-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Ice surface temperature (IST) products were used to develop the first multi-sensor, gap-free Level 4 (L4) IST product of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GIS) for 2012, when a significant melt event occurred. For the melt season, mean IST was −15 to −1 °C, and almost the entire GIS experienced at least 1 to 5 melt days. Inclusion of the L4 IST to a surface mass budget (SMB) model improved simulated surface temperatures during the key onset of the melt season, where biases are typically large.
Michael Studinger, Serdar S. Manizade, Matthew A. Linkswiler, and James K. Yungel
The Cryosphere, 16, 3649–3668, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3649-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3649-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The footprint density and high-resolution imagery of airborne surveys reveal details in supraglacial hydrological features that are currently not obtainable from spaceborne data. The accuracy and resolution of airborne measurements complement spaceborne measurements, can support calibration and validation of spaceborne methods, and provide information necessary for process studies of the hydrological system on ice sheets that currently cannot be achieved from spaceborne observations alone.
Tiago Silva, Jakob Abermann, Brice Noël, Sonika Shahi, Willem Jan van de Berg, and Wolfgang Schöner
The Cryosphere, 16, 3375–3391, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3375-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3375-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
To overcome internal climate variability, this study uses k-means clustering to combine NAO, GBI and IWV over the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) and names the approach as the North Atlantic influence on Greenland (NAG). With the support of a polar-adapted RCM, spatio-temporal changes on SEB components within NAG phases are investigated. We report atmospheric warming and moistening across all NAG phases as well as large-scale and regional-scale contributions to GrIS mass loss and their interactions.
Joseph A. MacGregor, Winnie Chu, William T. Colgan, Mark A. Fahnestock, Denis Felikson, Nanna B. Karlsson, Sophie M. J. Nowicki, and Michael Studinger
The Cryosphere, 16, 3033–3049, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3033-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3033-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Where the bottom of the Greenland Ice Sheet is frozen and where it is thawed is not well known, yet knowing this state is increasingly important to interpret modern changes in ice flow there. We produced a second synthesis of knowledge of the basal thermal state of the ice sheet using airborne and satellite observations and numerical models. About one-third of the ice sheet’s bed is likely thawed; two-fifths is likely frozen; and the remainder is too uncertain to specify.
Michael A. Cooper, Paulina Lewińska, William A. P. Smith, Edwin R. Hancock, Julian A. Dowdeswell, and David M. Rippin
The Cryosphere, 16, 2449–2470, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2449-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2449-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Here we use old photographs gathered several decades ago to expand the temporal record of glacier change in part of East Greenland. This is important because the longer the record of past glacier change, the better we are at predicting future glacier behaviour. Our work also shows that despite all these glaciers retreating, the rate at which they do this varies markedly. It is therefore important to consider outlet glaciers from Greenland individually to take account of this differing behaviour.
Joshua K. Cuzzone, Nicolás E. Young, Mathieu Morlighem, Jason P. Briner, and Nicole-Jeanne Schlegel
The Cryosphere, 16, 2355–2372, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2355-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2355-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We use an ice sheet model to determine what influenced the Greenland Ice Sheet to retreat across a portion of southwestern Greenland during the Holocene (about the last 12 000 years). Our simulations, constrained by observations from geologic markers, show that atmospheric warming and ice melt primarily caused the ice sheet to retreat rapidly across this domain. We find, however, that iceberg calving at the interface where the ice meets the ocean significantly influenced ice mass change.
Martin Rückamp, Thomas Kleiner, and Angelika Humbert
The Cryosphere, 16, 1675–1696, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1675-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1675-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a comparative modelling study between the full-Stokes (FS) and Blatter–Pattyn (BP) approximation applied to the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream. Both stress regimes are implemented in one single ice sheet code to eliminate numerical issues. The simulations unveil minor differences in the upper ice stream but become considerable at the grounding line of the 79° North Glacier. Model differences are stronger for a power-law friction than a linear friction law.
Daniel Clarkson, Emma Eastoe, and Amber Leeson
The Cryosphere, 16, 1597–1607, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1597-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1597-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Greenland ice sheet has seen large amounts of melt in recent years, and accurately modelling temperatures is vital to understand how much of the ice sheet is melting. We estimate the probability of melt from ice surface temperature data to identify which areas of the ice sheet have experienced melt and estimate temperature quantiles. Our results suggest that for large areas of the ice sheet, melt has become more likely over the past 2 decades and high temperatures are also becoming warmer.
Benjamin Joseph Davison, Tom Cowton, Andrew Sole, Finlo Cottier, and Pete Nienow
The Cryosphere, 16, 1181–1196, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1181-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1181-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The ocean is an important driver of Greenland glacier retreat. Icebergs influence ocean temperature in the vicinity of glaciers, which will affect glacier retreat rates, but the effect of icebergs on water temperature is poorly understood. In this study, we use a model to show that icebergs cause large changes to water properties next to Greenland's glaciers, which could influence ocean-driven glacier retreat around Greenland.
Katharina M. Holube, Tobias Zolles, and Andreas Born
The Cryosphere, 16, 315–331, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-315-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-315-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We simulated the surface mass balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet in the 21st century by forcing a snow model with the output of many Earth system models and four greenhouse gas emission scenarios. We quantify the contribution to uncertainty in surface mass balance of these two factors and the choice of parameters of the snow model. The results show that the differences between Earth system models are the main source of uncertainty. This effect is localised mostly near the equilibrium line.
David W. Ashmore, Douglas W. F. Mair, Jonathan E. Higham, Stephen Brough, James M. Lea, and Isabel J. Nias
The Cryosphere, 16, 219–236, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-219-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-219-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we explore the use of a transferrable and flexible statistical technique to try and untangle the multiple influences on marine-terminating glacier dynamics, as measured from space. We decompose a satellite-derived ice velocity record into ranked sets of static maps and temporal coefficients. We present evidence that the approach can identify velocity variability mainly driven by changes in terminus position and velocity variation mainly driven by subglacial hydrological processes.
Andy Aschwanden, Timothy C. Bartholomaus, Douglas J. Brinkerhoff, and Martin Truffer
The Cryosphere, 15, 5705–5715, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5705-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5705-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Estimating how much ice loss from Greenland and Antarctica will contribute to sea level rise is of critical societal importance. However, our analysis shows that recent efforts are not trustworthy because the models fail at reproducing contemporary ice melt. Here we present a roadmap towards making more credible estimates of ice sheet melt.
Adrien Wehrlé, Martin P. Lüthi, Andrea Walter, Guillaume Jouvet, and Andreas Vieli
The Cryosphere, 15, 5659–5674, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5659-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5659-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We developed a novel automated method for the detection and the quantification of ocean waves generated by glacier calving. This method was applied to data recorded with a terrestrial radar interferometer at Eqip Sermia, Greenland. Results show a high calving activity at the glacier front sector ending in deep water linked with more frequent meltwater plumes. This suggests that rising subglacial meltwater plumes strongly affect glacier calving in deep water, but weakly in shallow water.
Joel Harper, Toby Meierbachtol, Neil Humphrey, Jun Saito, and Aidan Stansberry
The Cryosphere, 15, 5409–5421, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5409-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5409-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We use surface and borehole measurements to investigate the generation and fate of basal meltwater in the ablation zone of western Greenland. The rate of basal meltwater generation at borehole study sites increases by up to 20 % over the winter period. Accommodation of all basal meltwater by expansion of isolated subglacial cavities is implausible. Other sinks for water do not likely balance basal meltwater generation, implying water evacuation through a connected drainage system in winter.
Andreas Born and Alexander Robinson
The Cryosphere, 15, 4539–4556, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4539-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4539-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Ice penetrating radar reflections from the Greenland ice sheet are the best available record of past accumulation and how these layers have been deformed over time by the flow of ice. Direct simulations of this archive hold great promise for improving our models and for uncovering details of ice sheet dynamics that neither models nor data could achieve alone. We present the first three-dimensional ice sheet model that explicitly simulates individual layers of accumulation and how they deform.
Tamara Annina Gerber, Christine Schøtt Hvidberg, Sune Olander Rasmussen, Steven Franke, Giulia Sinnl, Aslak Grinsted, Daniela Jansen, and Dorthe Dahl-Jensen
The Cryosphere, 15, 3655–3679, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3655-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3655-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We simulate the ice flow in the onset region of the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream to determine the source area and past accumulation rates of ice found in the EastGRIP ice core. This information is required to correct for bias in ice-core records introduced by the upstream flow effects. Our results reveal that the increasing accumulation rate with increasing upstream distance is predominantly responsible for the constant annual layer thicknesses observed in the upper 900 m of the ice core.
Ole Zeising and Angelika Humbert
The Cryosphere, 15, 3119–3128, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3119-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3119-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Greenland’s largest ice stream – the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS) – extends far into the interior of the ice sheet. Basal meltwater acts as a lubricant for glaciers and sustains sliding. Hence, observations of basal melt rates are of high interest. We performed two time series of precise ground-based radar measurements in the upstream region of NEGIS and found high melt rates of 0.19 ± 0.04 m per year.
Xavier Fettweis, Stefan Hofer, Roland Séférian, Charles Amory, Alison Delhasse, Sébastien Doutreloup, Christoph Kittel, Charlotte Lang, Joris Van Bever, Florent Veillon, and Peter Irvine
The Cryosphere, 15, 3013–3019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3013-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3013-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Without any reduction in our greenhouse gas emissions, the Greenland ice sheet surface mass loss can be brought in line with a medium-mitigation emissions scenario by reducing the solar downward flux at the top of the atmosphere by 1.5 %. In addition to reducing global warming, these solar geoengineering measures also dampen the well-known positive melt–albedo feedback over the ice sheet by 6 %. However, only stronger reductions in solar radiation could maintain a stable ice sheet in 2100.
Devon Dunmire, Alison F. Banwell, Nander Wever, Jan T. M. Lenaerts, and Rajashree Tri Datta
The Cryosphere, 15, 2983–3005, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2983-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2983-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Here, we automatically detect buried lakes (meltwater lakes buried below layers of snow) across the Greenland Ice Sheet, providing insight into a poorly studied meltwater feature. For 2018 and 2019, we compare areal extent of buried lakes. We find greater buried lake extent in 2019, especially in northern Greenland, which we attribute to late-summer surface melt and high autumn temperatures. We also provide evidence that buried lakes form via different processes across Greenland.
Tobias Zolles and Andreas Born
The Cryosphere, 15, 2917–2938, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2917-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2917-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the sensitivity of a glacier surface mass and the energy balance model of the Greenland ice sheet for the cold period of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the present-day climate. The results show that the model sensitivity changes with climate. While for present-day simulations inclusions of sublimation and hoar formation are of minor importance, they cannot be neglected during the LGM. To simulate the surface mass balance over long timescales, a water vapor scheme is necessary.
Paolo Colosio, Marco Tedesco, Roberto Ranzi, and Xavier Fettweis
The Cryosphere, 15, 2623–2646, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2623-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2623-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We use a new satellite dataset to study the spatiotemporal evolution of surface melting over Greenland at an enhanced resolution of 3.125 km. Using meteorological data and the MAR model, we observe that a dynamic algorithm can best detect surface melting. We found that the melting season is elongating, the melt extent is increasing and that high-resolution data better describe the spatiotemporal evolution of the melting season, which is crucial to improve estimates of sea level rise.
Christiaan T. van Dalum, Willem Jan van de Berg, and Michiel R. van den Broeke
The Cryosphere, 15, 1823–1844, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1823-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1823-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Absorption of solar radiation is often limited to the surface in regional climate models. Therefore, we have implemented a new radiative transfer scheme in the model RACMO2, which allows for internal heating and improves the surface reflectivity. Here, we evaluate its impact on the surface mass and energy budget and (sub)surface temperature, by using observations and the previous model version for the Greenland ice sheet. New results match better with observations and introduce subsurface melt.
Cited articles
Amundson, J. M., Fahnestock, M., Truffer, M., Brown, J., Lüthi, M. P.,
and Motyka, R. J.: Ice mélange dynamics and implications for terminus
stability, Jakobshavn Isbræ, Greenland, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth,
115, F01005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001405, 2010.
Benn, D. I., Warren, C. R., and Mottram, R. H.: Calving processes and the
dynamics of calving glaciers, Earth-Sci. Rev., 82, 143–179,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.02.002, 2007.
Bjørk, A. A., Kjær, K. H., Korsgaard, N. J., Khan, S. A., Kjeldsen,
K. K., Andresen, C. S., Box, J. E., Larsen, N. K., and Funder, S.: An aerial
view of 80 years of climate-related glacier fluctuations in southeast
Greenland, Nat. Geosci., 5, 427–432, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1481,
2012.
Black, T.: northwest_decadal_2021, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6015419, 2022.
Bunce, C., Carr, J. R., Nienow, P. W., Ross, N., and Killick, R.: Ice front
change of marine-terminating outlet glaciers in northwest and southeast
Greenland during the 21st century, J. Glaciol., 64, 1–13,
https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2018.44, 2018.
Carr, J. R., Vieli, A., and Stokes, C.: Influence of sea ice decline,
atmospheric warming, and glacier width on marine-terminating outlet glacier
behavior in northwest Greenland at seasonal to interannual timescales, J.
Geophys. Res.-Earth, 118, 1210–1226,
https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrf.20088, 2013.
Carr, J. R., Vieli, A., Stokes, C. R., Jamieson, S. S. R., Palmer, S. J.,
Christoffersen, P., Dowdeswell, J. A., Nick, F. M., Blankenship, D. D., and
Young, D. A.: Basal topographic controls on rapid retreat of Humboldt
Glacier, northern Greenland, J. Glaciol., 61, 137–150,
https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J128, 2015.
Carr, J. R., Stokes, C. R., and Vieli, A.: Threefold increase in
marine-terminating outlet glacier retreat rates across the Atlantic Arctic:
1992–2010, Ann. Glaciol., 58, 72–91, https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2017.3,
2017.
Cassotto, R., Fahnestock, M., Amundson, J. M., Truffer, M., and Joughin, I.:
Seasonal and interannual variations in ice melange and its impact on
terminus stability, Jakobshavn Isbræ, Greenland, J. Glaciol., 61,
76–88, https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG13J235, 2015.
Catania, G. A., Stearns, L. A., Sutherland, D. A., Fried, M. J.,
Bartholomaus, T. C., Morlighem, M., Shroyer, E., and Nash, J.: Geometric
Controls on Tidewater Glacier Retreat in Central Western Greenland, J.
Geophys. Res.-Earth, 123, 2024–2038,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JF004499, 2018.
Cook, S. J., Christoffersen, P., Truffer, M., Chudley, T. R., and
Abellán, A.: Calving of a Large Greenlandic Tidewater Glacier has
Complex Links to Meltwater Plumes and Mélange, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 126, e2020JF006051, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JF006051, 2021.
Enderlin, E. M., Howat, I. M., Jeong, S., Noh, M.-J., van Angelen, J. H.,
and van den Broeke, M. R.: An improved mass budget for the Greenland ice
sheet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 866–872,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL059010, 2014.
Ettema, J., van den Broeke, M. R., van Meijgaard, E., van de Berg, W. J.,
Bamber, J. L., Box, J. E., and Bales, R. C.: Higher surface mass balance of
the Greenland ice sheet revealed by high-resolution climate modeling,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L12501, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038110, 2009.
Fahrner, D., Lea, J. M., Brough, S., Mair, D. W. F., and Abermann, J.:
Linear response of the Greenland ice sheet's tidewater glacier terminus
positions to climate, J. Glaciol., 67, 1–11,
https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2021.13, 2021.
Felikson, D., Catania, G. A., Bartholomaus, T. C., Morlighem, M., and
Noël, B. P. Y.: Steep Glacier Bed Knickpoints Mitigate Inland Thinning
in Greenland, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2020GL090112,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL090112, 2021.
Fettweis, X., Box, J. E., Agosta, C., Amory, C., Kittel, C., Lang, C., van As, D., Machguth, H., and Gallée, H.: Reconstructions of the 1900–2015 Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance using the regional climate MAR model, The Cryosphere, 11, 1015–1033, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1015-2017, 2017.
Foga, S., Stearns, L. A., and van der Veen, C. J.: Application of Satellite
Remote Sensing Techniques to Quantify Terminus and Ice Mélange Behavior
at Helheim Glacier, East Greenland, Mar. Technol. Soc. J., 48, 81–91,
https://doi.org/10.4031/MTSJ.48.5.3, 2014.
Forget, G., Campin, J.-M., Heimbach, P., Hill, C. N., Ponte, R. M., and Wunsch, C.: ECCO version 4: an integrated framework for non-linear inverse modeling and global ocean state estimation, Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 3071–3104, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-3071-2015, 2015.
Google: Google Cloud Platform Public Data Landsat, https://console.cloud.google.com/storage/browser/gcp-public-data-landsat, last access: 5 March 2022.
Hill, E. A., Carr, J. R., and Stokes, C. R.: A Review of Recent Changes in
Major Marine-Terminating Outlet Glaciers in Northern Greenland, Front. Earth
Sci., 4, 1–23, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2016.00111, 2017.
Holland, D. M., Thomas, R. H., de Young, B., Ribergaard, M. H., and Lyberth,
B.: Acceleration of Jakobshavn Isbræ triggered by warm subsurface ocean
waters, Nat. Geosci., 1, 659–664, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo316, 2008.
Holland, D. M., Voytenko, D., Christianson, K., Dixon, T. H., Mel, M. J.,
Parizek, B. R., Vaňková, I., Walker, R. T., Walter, J. I., Nicholls,
K., and Holland, D.: An Intensive Observation of Calving at Helheim Glacier,
East Greenland, Oceanography, 29, 46–61,
https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2016.98, 2016.
How, P., Schild, K. M., Benn, D. I., Noormets, R., Kirchner, N., Luckman,
A., Vallot, D., Hulton, N. R. J., and Borstad, C.: Calving controlled by
melt-under-cutting: detailed calving styles revealed through time-lapse
observations, Ann. Glaciol., 60, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2018.28,
2019.
Howat, I. M. and Eddy, A.: Multi-decadal retreat of Greenland's
marine-terminating glaciers, J. Glaciol., 57, 389–396,
https://doi.org/10.3189/002214311796905631, 2011.
Howat, I. M., Joughin, I., Fahnestock, M., Smith, B. E., and Scambos, T. A.:
Synchronous retreat and acceleration of southeast Greenland outlet glaciers
2000-06: Ice dynamics and coupling to climate, J. Glaciol., 54, 646–660,
https://doi.org/10.3189/002214308786570908, 2008.
Howat, I. M., Box, J. E., Ahn, Y., Herrington, A., and McFadden, E. M.:
Seasonal variability in the dynamics of marine-terminating outlet glaciers
in Greenland, J. Glaciol., 56, 601–613,
https://doi.org/10.3189/002214310793146232, 2010.
Hurrell, J. W., Hack, J. J., Shea, D., Caron, J. M., and Rosinski, J.: A New
Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Boundary Dataset for the Community
Atmosphere Model, J. Climate, 21, 5145–5153,
https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2292.1, 2008.
ICES: ICES Dataset on Ocean Hydrography, ICES [data set],
https://ocean.ices.dk/hydchem/hydchem.aspx, last access: 12 May 2021.
Jekel, C. and Venter, G.: pwlf: A Python Library for Fitting 1D Continuous
Piecewise Linear Functions, Python, 2019.
Joughin, I.: MEaSUREs Greenland Image Mosaics from Sentinel-1A and 1B, Version 4, NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Cente [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/WXQ366CP8YDE, 2021.
Joughin, I., Howat, I. M., Fahnestock, M., Smith, B., Krabill, W., Alley, R.
B., Stern, H., and Truffer, M.: Continued evolution of Jakobshavn Isbrae
following its rapid speedup, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth Surf., 113, F04006,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JF001023, 2008a.
Joughin, I., Howat, I., Alley, R. B., Ekstrom, G., Fahnestock, M., Moon, T.,
Nettles, M., Truffer, M., and Tsai, V. C.: Ice-front variation and tidewater
behavior on Helheim and Kangerdlugssuaq Glaciers, Greenland, J. Geophys.
Res.-Earth, 113, F01004, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JF000837, 2008b.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., Howat, I. M., Scambos, T. A., and Moon, T.:
Greenland flow variability from ice-sheet-wide velocity mapping, J.
Glaciol., 56, 415–430, https://doi.org/10.3189/002214310792447734, 2010.
Joughin, I., Moon, T., Joughin, J., and Black, T.: MEaSUREs Annual Greenland
Outlet Glacier Terminus Positions from SAR Mosaics, Version 1, NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data Center) [data set],
https://nsidc.org/data/nsidc-0642/versions/1 (last access: 19 May 2021), https://doi.org/10.5067/DC0MLBOCL3EL, 2015.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., Howat, I. M., Moon, T., and Scambos, T. A.: A SAR
record of early 21st century change in Greenland, J. Glaciol., 62, 62–71,
https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.10, 2016a.
Joughin, I., Smith, B., Howat, I., and Scambos, T.: MEaSUREs Multi-year
Greenland Ice Sheet Velocity Mosaic, Version 1, NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data Center) [data set],
https://doi.org/10.5067/QUA5Q9SVMSJG, 2016b.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., and Howat, I. M.: A complete map of Greenland ice
velocity derived from satellite data collected over 20 years, J. Glaciol.,
64, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2017.73, 2018a.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., and Howat, I.: Greenland Ice Mapping Project: ice flow velocity variation at sub-monthly to decadal timescales, The Cryosphere, 12, 2211–2227, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2211-2018, 2018b.
Joughin, I., Shean, D. E., Smith, B. E., and Floricioiu, D.: A decade of variability on Jakobshavn Isbræ: ocean temperatures pace speed through influence on mélange rigidity, The Cryosphere, 14, 211–227, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-211-2020, 2020.
Kehrl, L. M., Joughin, I., Shean, D. E., Floricioiu, D., and Krieger, L.:
Seasonal and interannual variabilities in terminus position, glacier
velocity, and surface elevation at Helheim and Kangerlussuaq Glaciers from
2008 to 2016, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 122, 1635–1652,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JF004133, 2017.
Khazendar, A., Fenty, I. G., Carroll, D., Gardner, A., Lee, C. M., Fukumori,
I., Wang, O., Zhang, H., Seroussi, H., Moller, D., Noël, B. P. Y.,
Broeke, M. R. van den, Dinardo, S., and Willis, J.: Interruption of two
decades of Jakobshavn Isbrae acceleration and thinning as regional ocean
cools, Nat. Geosci., 12, 277–283,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0329-3, 2019.
King, M. D., Howat, I. M., Candela, S. G., Noh, M. J., Jeong, S., Noël,
B. P. Y., van den Broeke, M. R., Wouters, B., and Negrete, A.: Dynamic ice
loss from the Greenland Ice Sheet driven by sustained glacier retreat,
Commun. Earth Environ., 1, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-020-0001-2,
2020.
Larsen, S. H., Khan, S. A., Ahlstrøm, A. P., Hvidberg, C. S., Willis, M.
J., and Andersen, S. B.: Increased mass loss and asynchronous behavior of
marine-terminating outlet glaciers at Upernavik Isstrøm, NW Greenland, J.
Geophys. Res.-Earth, 121, 241–256,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003507, 2016.
Luckman, A., Benn, D. I., Cottier, F., Bevan, S., Nilsen, F., and Inall, M.:
Calving rates at tidewater glaciers vary strongly with ocean temperature,
Nat. Commun., 6, 8566, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9566, 2015.
McFadden, E. M., Howat, I. M., Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., and Ahn, Y.:
Changes in the dynamics of marine terminating outlet glaciers in west
Greenland (2000–2009), J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 116, F02022,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JF001757, 2011.
Meier, W. N., Fetterer, F., Savoie, M., Mallory, S., Duerr, R., and Stroeve,
J.: NOAA/NSIDC Climate Data Record of Passive Microwave Sea Ice
Concentration, Version 3, NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data Center) [data set], https://doi.org/10.7265/N59P2ZTG, 2017.
Moon, T. and Joughin, I.: Changes in ice front position on Greenland's
outlet glaciers from 1992 to 2007, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 113,
F02022, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JF000927, 2008.
Moon, T., Joughin, I., Smith, B., and Howat, I.: 21st-Century Evolution of
Greenland Outlet Glacier Velocities, Science, 336, 576–578,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1219985, 2012.
Moon, T., Joughin, I., and Smith, B.: Seasonal to multiyear variability of
glacier surface velocity, terminus position, and sea ice/ice mélange in
northwest Greenland, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 120, 818–833,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003494, 2015.
Moon, T., Sutherland, D. A., Carroll, D., Felikson, D., Kehrl, L., and
Straneo, F.: Subsurface iceberg melt key to Greenland fjord freshwater
budget, Nat. Geosci., 11, 49–54, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-017-0018-z,
2018.
Morlighem, M., Bondzio, J., Seroussi, H., Rignot, E., Larour, E., Humbert,
A., and Rebuffi, S.: Modeling of Store Gletscher's calving dynamics, West
Greenland, in response to ocean thermal forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43,
2659–2666, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL067695, 2016.
Morlighem, M., Williams, C. N., Rignot, E., An, L., Arndt, J. E., Bamber, J.
L., Catania, G., Chauché, N., Dowdeswell, J. A., Dorschel, B., Fenty,
I., Hogan, K., Howat, I., Hubbard, A., Jakobsson, M., Jordan, T. M.,
Kjeldsen, K. K., Millan, R., Mayer, L., Mouginot, J., Noël, B. P. Y.,
O'Cofaigh, C., Palmer, S., Rysgaard, S., Seroussi, H., Siegert, M. J.,
Slabon, P., Straneo, F., van den Broeke, M. R., Weinrebe, W., Wood, M., and
Zinglersen, K. B.: BedMachine v3: Complete Bed Topography and Ocean
Bathymetry Mapping of Greenland From Multibeam Echo Sounding Combined With
Mass Conservation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 11051–11061,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074954, 2017a.
Morlighem, M., Williams, C., Rignot, E., An, L., Arndt, J. E., Bamber, J.,
Catania, G., Chauché, N., Dowdeswell, J. A., Dorschel, B., Fenty, I.,
Hogan, K., Howat, I., Hubbard, A., Jakobsson, M., Jordan, T. M., Kjeldsen,
K. K., Millan, R., Mayer, L., Mouginot, J., Noël, B., O'Cofaigh, C.,
Palmer, S. J., Rysgaard, S., Seroussi, H., Siegert, M. J., Slabon, P.,
Straneo, F., van den Broeke, M. R., Weinrebe, W., Wood, M., and Zinglersen,
K.: IceBridge BedMachine Greenland, Version 3, NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data Center) [data set],
https://doi.org/10.5067/2CIX82HUV88Y, 2017b.
Morlighem, M., Wood, M., Seroussi, H., Choi, Y., and Rignot, E.: Modeling the response of northwest Greenland to enhanced ocean thermal forcing and subglacial discharge, The Cryosphere, 13, 723–734, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-723-2019, 2019.
Mortensen, J., Rysgaard, S., Bendtsen, J., Lennert, K., Kanzow, T., Lund,
H., and Meire, L.: Subglacial Discharge and Its Down-Fjord Transformation in
West Greenland Fjords With an Ice Mélange, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 125,
e2020JC016301, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JC016301, 2020.
Motyka, R. J., Truffer, M., Fahnestock, M., Mortensen, J., Rysgaard, S., and
Howat, I.: Submarine melting of the 1985 Jakobshavn Isbræ floating
tongue and the triggering of the current retreat, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 116, F01007, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001632, 2011.
Motyka, R. J., Dryer, W. P., Amundson, J., Truffer, M., and Fahnestock, M.:
Rapid submarine melting driven by subglacial discharge, LeConte Glacier,
Alaska, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 5153–5158,
https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.51011, 2013.
Motyka, R. J., Cassotto, R., Truffer, M., Kjeldsen, K. K., van As, D.,
Korsgaard, N. J., Fahnestock, M., Howat, I., Langen, P. L., Mortensen, J.,
Lennert, K., and Rysgaard, S.: Asynchronous behavior of outlet glaciers
feeding Godthåbsfjord (Nuup Kangerlua) and the triggering of Narsap
Sermia's retreat in SW Greenland, J. Glaciol., 63, 288–308,
https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.138, 2017.
Mouginot, J., Rignot, E., Bjørk, A. A., van den Broeke, M., Millan, R.,
Morlighem, M., Noël, B., Scheuchl, B., and Wood, M.: Forty-six years of
Greenland Ice Sheet mass balance from 1972 to 2018, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,
116, 9239–9244, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1904242116, 2019.
Murray, T., Scharrer, K., Selmes, N., Booth, A. D., James, T. D., Bevan, S.
L., Bradley, J., Cook, S., Cordero Llana, L., Drocourt, Y., Dyke, L.,
Goldsack, A., Hughes, A. L., Luckman, A. J., and McGovern, J.: Extensive
retreat of Greenland tidewater glaciers, 2000–2010, Arct. Antarct. Alp.
Res., 47, 427–447, https://doi.org/10.1657/AAAR0014-049, 2015.
Nick, F. M., van der Veen, C. J., Vieli, A., and Benn, D. I.: A physically
based calving model applied to marine outlet glaciers and implications for
the glacier dynamics, J. Glaciol., 56, 781–794,
https://doi.org/10.3189/002214310794457344, 2010.
Nick, F. M., Vieli, A., Andersen, M. L., Joughin, I., Payne, A., Edwards, T.
L., Pattyn, F., and van de Wal, R. S. W.: Future sea-level rise from
Greenland's main outlet glaciers in a warming climate, Nature, 497,
235–238, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12068, 2013.
Peng, G., Meier, W. N., Scott, D. J., and Savoie, M. H.: A long-term and reproducible passive microwave sea ice concentration data record for climate studies and monitoring, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 5, 311–318, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-5-311-2013, 2013.
Reeh, N., Thomsen, H. H., Higgins, A. K., and Weidick, A.: Sea ice and the
stability of north and northeast Greenland floating glaciers, Ann. Glaciol.,
33, 474–480, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756401781818554, 2001.
Rignot, E. and Kanagaratnam, P.: Changes in the Velocity Structure of the
Greenland Ice Sheet, Science, 311, 986–990,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1121381, 2006.
Rignot, E., Koppes, M., and Velicogna, I.: Rapid submarine melting of the
calving faces of West Greenland glaciers, Nat. Geosci., 3, 187–191,
https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo765, 2010.
Rignot, E., Fenty, I., Menemenlis, D., and Xu, Y.: Spreading of warm ocean
waters around Greenland as a possible cause for glacier acceleration, Ann.
Glaciol., 53, 257–266, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012AoG60A136, 2012.
Rignot, E., Fenty, I., Xu, Y., Cai, C., and Kemp, C.: Undercutting of
marine-terminating glaciers in West Greenland, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42,
5909–5917, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL064236, 2015.
Robel, A. A.: Thinning sea ice weakens buttressing force of iceberg
mélange and promotes calving, Nat. Commun., 8, 14596,
https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14596, 2017.
Schild, K. M. and Hamilton, G. S.: Seasonal variations of outlet glacier
terminus position in Greenland, J. Glaciol., 59, 759–770,
https://doi.org/10.3189/2013JoG12J238, 2013.
Schoof, C.: Ice sheet grounding line dynamics: Steady states, stability, and
hysteresis, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 112, F03S28,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000664, 2007.
Shea, D., Hurrell, J., and Phillips, A.: Merged Hadley-OI sea surface
temperature and sea ice concentration data set, UCAR/NCAR - GDEX [data set],
https://doi.org/10.5065/R33V-SV91, 2020.
Shepherd, A., Ivins, E., Rignot, E., Smith, B., van den Broeke, M.,
Velicogna, I., Whitehouse, P., Briggs, K., Joughin, I., Krinner, G.,
Nowicki, S., Payne, T., Scambos, T., Schlegel, N., A, G., Agosta, C.,
Ahlstrøm, A., Babonis, G., Barletta, V. R., Bjørk, A. A., Blazquez,
A., Bonin, J., Colgan, W., Csatho, B., Cullather, R., Engdahl, M. E.,
Felikson, D., Fettweis, X., Forsberg, R., Hogg, A. E., Gallee, H., Gardner,
A., Gilbert, L., Gourmelen, N., Groh, A., Gunter, B., Hanna, E., Harig, C.,
Helm, V., Horvath, A., Horwath, M., Khan, S., Kjeldsen, K. K., Konrad, H.,
Langen, P. L., Lecavalier, B., Loomis, B., Luthcke, S., McMillan, M.,
Melini, D., Mernild, S., Mohajerani, Y., Moore, P., Mottram, R., Mouginot,
J., Moyano, G., Muir, A., Nagler, T., Nield, G., Nilsson, J., Noël, B.,
Otosaka, I., Pattle, M. E., Peltier, W. R., Pie, N., Rietbroek, R., Rott,
H., Sandberg Sørensen, L., Sasgen, I., Save, H., Scheuchl, B., Schrama,
E., Schröder, L., Seo, K.-W., Simonsen, S. B., Slater, T., Spada, G.,
Sutterley, T., Talpe, M., Tarasov, L., van de Berg, W. J., van der Wal, W.,
van Wessem, M., Vishwakarma, B. D., Wiese, D., Wilton, D., Wagner, T.,
Wouters, B., and Wuite, J.: Mass balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet from
1992 to 2018, Nature, 579, 233–239,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1855-2, 2020.
Slater, D. A., Nienow, P. W., Cowton, T. R., Goldberg, D. N., and Sole, A.
J.: Effect of near-terminus subglacial hydrology on tidewater glacier
submarine melt rates, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 2861–2868,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL062494, 2015.
Slater, D. A., Nienow, P. W., Goldberg, D. N., Cowton, T. R., and Sole, A.
J.: A model for tidewater glacier undercutting by submarine melting,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 2360–2368, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072374,
2017.
Slater, D. A., Straneo, F., Felikson, D., Little, C. M., Goelzer, H., Fettweis, X., and Holte, J.: Estimating Greenland tidewater glacier retreat driven by submarine melting, The Cryosphere, 13, 2489–2509, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2489-2019, 2019.
Sohn, H.-G., Jezek, K. C., and van der Veen, C. J.: Jakobshavn Glacier, west
Greenland: 30 years of spaceborne observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25,
2699–2702, https://doi.org/10.1029/98GL01973, 1998.
Straneo, F., Heimbach, P., Sergienko, O., Hamilton, G., Catania, G.,
Griffies, S., Hallberg, R., Jenkins, A., Joughin, I., Motyka, R., Pfeffer,
W. T., Price, S. F., Rignot, E., Scambos, T., Truffer, M., and Vieli, A.:
Challenges to Understanding the Dynamic Response of Greenland's Marine
Terminating Glaciers to Oceanic and Atmospheric Forcing, B. Am. Meteorol.
Soc., 94, 1131–1144, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00100.1, 2013.
Todd, J. and Christoffersen, P.: Are seasonal calving dynamics forced by buttressing from ice mélange or undercutting by melting? Outcomes from full-Stokes simulations of Store Glacier, West Greenland, The Cryosphere, 8, 2353–2365, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2353-2014, 2014.
U.S. Geological Survey: Global Visualization Viewer (GloVis), https://glovis.usgs.gov/ (last access: 5 March 2022), 2017.
van der Veen, C. J.: Fracture mechanics approach to penetration of surface
crevasses on glaciers, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 27, 31–47,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-232X(97)00022-0, 1998.
Weertman, J.: Can a water-filled crevasse reach the bottom surface of a
glacier?, Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol., 139–145, 1973.
Wood, M., Rignot, E., Fenty, I., An, L., Bjørk, A., van den Broeke, M.,
Cai, C., Kane, E., Menemenlis, D., Millan, R., Morlighem, M., Mouginot, J.,
Noël, B., Scheuchl, B., Velicogna, I., Willis, J. K., and Zhang, H.:
Ocean forcing drives glacier retreat in Greenland, Sci. Adv., 7, eaba7282,
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba7282, 2021.
Zhang, H., Menemenlis, D., and Fenty, I.: ECCO LLC270 Ocean-Ice State
Estimate, https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/119821, last access: 21 December 2018.
Short summary
We used satellite images to create a comprehensive record of annual glacier change in northwest Greenland from 1972 through 2021. We found that nearly all glaciers in our study area have retreated and glacier retreat accelerated from around 1996. Comparing these results with climate data, we found that glacier retreat is most sensitive to water runoff and moderately sensitive to ocean temperatures. These can affect glacier fronts in several ways, so no process clearly dominates glacier retreat.
We used satellite images to create a comprehensive record of annual glacier change in northwest...
