Articles | Volume 17, issue 12
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5137-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5137-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
06 Dec 2023
Research article |
| 06 Dec 2023
| 06 Dec 2023
A conceptual model for glacial lake bathymetric distribution
State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Environment and Resources (TPESER), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
Center for the Pan-Third Pole Environment, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Environment and Resources (TPESER), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
Baosheng An
State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Environment and Resources (TPESER), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
School of Science, Tibet University, Lhasa 850011, China
Related authors
Finu Shrestha, Jakob F. Steiner, Reeju Shrestha, Yathartha Dhungel, Sharad P. Joshi, Sam Inglis, Arshad Ashraf, Sher Wali, Khwaja M. Walizada, and Taigang Zhang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 3941–3961, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3941-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3941-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A new inventory of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in High Mountain Asia found 697 events, causing 906 deaths, 3 times more than previously reported. This study provides insights into the contributing factors behind GLOFs on a regional scale and highlights the need for interdisciplinary approaches, including scientific communities and local knowledge, to understand GLOF risks in Asia. This study allows integration with other datasets, enabling future local and regional risk assessments.
Wei Yang, Zhongyan Wang, Baosheng An, Yingying Chen, Chuanxi Zhao, Chenhui Li, Yongjie Wang, Weicai Wang, Jiule Li, Guangjian Wu, Lin Bai, Fan Zhang, and Tandong Yao
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 3015–3029, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-3015-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-3015-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present the structure and performance of the early warning system (EWS) for glacier collapse and river blockages in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. The EWS warned of three collapse–river blockage chain events and seven small-scale events. The volume and location of the collapses and the percentage of ice content influenced the velocities of debris flows. Such a study is helpful for understanding the mechanism of glacier hazards and for establishing similar EWSs in other high-risk regions.
Finu Shrestha, Jakob F. Steiner, Reeju Shrestha, Yathartha Dhungel, Sharad P. Joshi, Sam Inglis, Arshad Ashraf, Sher Wali, Khwaja M. Walizada, and Taigang Zhang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 3941–3961, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3941-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3941-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A new inventory of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in High Mountain Asia found 697 events, causing 906 deaths, 3 times more than previously reported. This study provides insights into the contributing factors behind GLOFs on a regional scale and highlights the need for interdisciplinary approaches, including scientific communities and local knowledge, to understand GLOF risks in Asia. This study allows integration with other datasets, enabling future local and regional risk assessments.
Wei Yang, Huabiao Zhao, Baiqing Xu, Jiule Li, Weicai Wang, Guangjian Wu, Zhongyan Wang, and Tandong Yao
The Cryosphere, 17, 2625–2628, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2625-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2625-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
There is very strong scientific and public interest regarding the snow thickness on Mountain Everest. Previously reported snow depths derived by different methods and instruments ranged from 0.92 to 3.5 m. Our measurements in 2022 provide the first clear radar image of the snowpack at the top of Mount Everest. The snow thickness at Earth's summit was averaged to be 9.5 ± 1.2 m. This updated snow thickness is considerably deeper than values reported during the past 5 decades.
Chuanxi Zhao, Wei Yang, Matthew Westoby, Baosheng An, Guangjian Wu, Weicai Wang, Zhongyan Wang, Yongjie Wang, and Stuart Dunning
The Cryosphere, 16, 1333–1340, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1333-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1333-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
On 22 March 2021, a ~ 50 Mm 3 ice-rock avalanche occurred from 6500 m a.s.l. in the Sedongpu basin, southeastern Tibet. It caused temporary blockage of the Yarlung Tsangpo river, a major tributary of the Brahmaputra. We utilize field investigations, high-resolution satellite imagery, seismic records, and meteorological data to analyse the evolution of the 2021 event and its impact, discuss potential drivers, and briefly reflect on implications for the sustainable development of the region.
Yongkang Xue, Tandong Yao, Aaron A. Boone, Ismaila Diallo, Ye Liu, Xubin Zeng, William K. M. Lau, Shiori Sugimoto, Qi Tang, Xiaoduo Pan, Peter J. van Oevelen, Daniel Klocke, Myung-Seo Koo, Tomonori Sato, Zhaohui Lin, Yuhei Takaya, Constantin Ardilouze, Stefano Materia, Subodh K. Saha, Retish Senan, Tetsu Nakamura, Hailan Wang, Jing Yang, Hongliang Zhang, Mei Zhao, Xin-Zhong Liang, J. David Neelin, Frederic Vitart, Xin Li, Ping Zhao, Chunxiang Shi, Weidong Guo, Jianping Tang, Miao Yu, Yun Qian, Samuel S. P. Shen, Yang Zhang, Kun Yang, Ruby Leung, Yuan Qiu, Daniele Peano, Xin Qi, Yanling Zhan, Michael A. Brunke, Sin Chan Chou, Michael Ek, Tianyi Fan, Hong Guan, Hai Lin, Shunlin Liang, Helin Wei, Shaocheng Xie, Haoran Xu, Weiping Li, Xueli Shi, Paulo Nobre, Yan Pan, Yi Qin, Jeff Dozier, Craig R. Ferguson, Gianpaolo Balsamo, Qing Bao, Jinming Feng, Jinkyu Hong, Songyou Hong, Huilin Huang, Duoying Ji, Zhenming Ji, Shichang Kang, Yanluan Lin, Weiguang Liu, Ryan Muncaster, Patricia de Rosnay, Hiroshi G. Takahashi, Guiling Wang, Shuyu Wang, Weicai Wang, Xu Zhou, and Yuejian Zhu
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 4465–4494, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-4465-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-4465-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The subseasonal prediction of extreme hydroclimate events such as droughts/floods has remained stubbornly low for years. This paper presents a new international initiative which, for the first time, introduces spring land surface temperature anomalies over high mountains to improve precipitation prediction through remote effects of land–atmosphere interactions. More than 40 institutions worldwide are participating in this effort. The experimental protocol and preliminary results are presented.
Related subject area
Discipline: Glaciers | Subject: Glacier Hydrology
Velocity variations and hydrological drainage at Baltoro Glacier, Pakistan
Seasonal to decadal dynamics of supraglacial lakes on debris-covered glaciers in the Khumbu region, Nepal
The evolution of isolated cavities and hydraulic connection at the glacier bed – Part 1: Steady states and friction laws
The evolution of isolated cavities and hydraulic connection at the glacier bed – Part 2: A dynamic viscoelastic model
A Simulation Approach to Characterizing Sub-Glacial Hydrology
The impact of surface melt rate and catchment characteristics on Greenland Ice Sheet moulin inputs
Evaporation over a glacial lake in Antarctica
A local model of snow–firn dynamics and application to the Colle Gnifetti site
Accumulation of legacy fallout radionuclides in cryoconite on Isfallsglaciären (Arctic Sweden) and their downstream spatial distribution
Drainage of an ice-dammed lake through a supraglacial stream: hydraulics and thermodynamics
Development of a subglacial lake monitored with radio-echo sounding: case study from the eastern Skaftá cauldron in the Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland
Geophysical constraints on the properties of a subglacial lake in northwest Greenland
Gulf of Alaska ice-marginal lake area change over the Landsat record and potential physical controls
Sensitivity of subglacial drainage to water supply distribution at the Kongsfjord basin, Svalbard
Buoyant calving and ice-contact lake evolution at Pasterze Glacier (Austria) in the period 1998–2019
An analysis of instabilities and limit cycles in glacier-dammed reservoirs
Coupled modelling of subglacial hydrology and calving-front melting at Store Glacier, West Greenland
Channelized, distributed, and disconnected: subglacial drainage under a valley glacier in the Yukon
Anna Wendleder, Jasmin Bramboeck, Jamie Izzard, Thilo Erbertseder, Pablo d'Angelo, Andreas Schmitt, Duncan J. Quincey, Christoph Mayer, and Matthias H. Braun
The Cryosphere, 18, 1085–1103, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1085-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1085-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study analyses the basal sliding and the hydrological drainage of Baltoro Glacier, Pakistan. The surface velocity was characterized by a spring speed-up, summer peak, and autumn speed-up. Snow melt has the largest impact on the spring speed-up, summer velocity peak, and the transition from inefficient to efficient drainage. Drainage from supraglacial lakes contributed to the fall speed-up. Increased summer temperatures will intensify the magnitude of meltwater and thus surface velocities.
Lucas Zeller, Daniel McGrath, Scott W. McCoy, and Jonathan Jacquet
The Cryosphere, 18, 525–541, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-525-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-525-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we developed methods for automatically identifying supraglacial lakes in multiple satellite imagery sources for eight glaciers in Nepal. We identified a substantial seasonal variability in lake area, which was as large as the variability seen across entire decades. These complex patterns are not captured in existing regional-scale datasets. Our findings show that this seasonal variability must be accounted for in order to interpret long-term changes in debris-covered glaciers.
Christian Schoof
The Cryosphere, 17, 4797–4815, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4797-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4797-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Computational models that seek to predict the future behaviour of ice sheets and glaciers typically rely on being able to compute the rate at which a glacier slides over its bed. In this paper, I show that the degree to which the glacier bed is
hydraulically connected(how easily water can flow along the glacier bed) plays a central role in determining how fast ice can slide.
Christian Schoof
The Cryosphere, 17, 4817–4836, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4817-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4817-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The subglacial drainage of meltwater plays a major role in regulating glacier and ice sheet flow. In this paper, I construct and solve a mathematical model that describes how connections are made within the subglacial drainage system. This will aid future efforts to predict glacier response to surface melt supply.
Chris Pierce, Christopher Gerekos, Mark Skidmore, Lucas Beem, Don Blankenship, Won Sang Lee, Ed Adams, Choon-Ki Lee, and Jamey Stutz
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1685, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1685, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Water beneath glaciers in Antarctica can influence how the ice slides or melts. Airborne radar can detect this water, which looks bright in radar images. Unfortunately, common techniques cannot identify the water’s size or shape. We used a simulator to show how the radar image changes based on the bed material, size and shape of the water body. This technique was used to assess a suspected water body beneath Thwaite's Glacier. We found it is most likely a series of wide, flat canals or a lake.
Tim Hill and Christine F. Dow
The Cryosphere, 17, 2607–2624, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2607-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2607-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Water flow across the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet controls the rate of water flow to the glacier bed. Here, we simulate surface water flow for a small catchment on the southwestern Greenland Ice Sheet. Our simulations predict significant differences in the form of surface water flow in high and low melt years depending on the rate and intensity of surface melt. These model outputs will be important in future work assessing the impact of surface water flow on subglacial water pressure.
Elena Shevnina, Miguel Potes, Timo Vihma, Tuomas Naakka, Pankaj Ramji Dhote, and Praveen Kumar Thakur
The Cryosphere, 16, 3101–3121, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3101-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3101-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The evaporation over an ice-free glacial lake was measured in January 2018, and the uncertainties inherent to five indirect methods were quantified. Results show that in summer up to 5 mm of water evaporated daily from the surface of the lake located in Antarctica. The indirect methods underestimated the evaporation over the lake's surface by up to 72 %. The results are important for estimating the evaporation over polar regions where a growing number of glacial lakes have recently been evident.
Fabiola Banfi and Carlo De Michele
The Cryosphere, 16, 1031–1056, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1031-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1031-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Climate changes require a dynamic description of glaciers in hydrological models. In this study we focus on the local modelling of snow and firn. We tested our model at the site of Colle Gnifetti, 4400–4550 m a.s.l. The model shows that wind erodes all the precipitation of the cold months, while snow is in part conserved between April and September since higher temperatures protect snow from erosion. We also compared modelled and observed firn density, obtaining a satisfying agreement.
Caroline C. Clason, Will H. Blake, Nick Selmes, Alex Taylor, Pascal Boeckx, Jessica Kitch, Stephanie C. Mills, Giovanni Baccolo, and Geoffrey E. Millward
The Cryosphere, 15, 5151–5168, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5151-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5151-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Our paper presents results of sample collection and subsequent geochemical analyses from the glaciated Isfallsglaciären catchment in Arctic Sweden. The data suggest that material found on the surface of glaciers,
cryoconite, is very efficient at accumulating products of nuclear fallout transported in the atmosphere following events such as the Chernobyl disaster. We investigate how this compares with samples in the downstream environment and consider potential environmental implications.
Christophe Ogier, Mauro A. Werder, Matthias Huss, Isabelle Kull, David Hodel, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 15, 5133–5150, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5133-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5133-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Glacier-dammed lakes are prone to draining rapidly when the ice dam breaks and constitute a serious threat to populations downstream. Such a lake drainage can proceed through an open-air channel at the glacier surface. In this study, we present what we believe to be the most complete dataset to date of an ice-dammed lake drainage through such an open-air channel. We provide new insights for future glacier-dammed lake drainage modelling studies and hazard assessments.
Eyjólfur Magnússon, Finnur Pálsson, Magnús T. Gudmundsson, Thórdís Högnadóttir, Cristian Rossi, Thorsteinn Thorsteinsson, Benedikt G. Ófeigsson, Erik Sturkell, and Tómas Jóhannesson
The Cryosphere, 15, 3731–3749, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3731-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3731-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We present a unique insight into the shape and development of a subglacial lake over a 7-year period, using repeated radar survey. The lake collects geothermal meltwater, which is released in semi-regular floods, often referred to as jökulhlaups. The applicability of our survey approach to monitor the water stored in the lake for a better assessment of the potential hazard of jökulhlaups is demonstrated by comparison with independent measurements of released water volume during two jökulhlaups.
Ross Maguire, Nicholas Schmerr, Erin Pettit, Kiya Riverman, Christyna Gardner, Daniella N. DellaGiustina, Brad Avenson, Natalie Wagner, Angela G. Marusiak, Namrah Habib, Juliette I. Broadbeck, Veronica J. Bray, and Samuel H. Bailey
The Cryosphere, 15, 3279–3291, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3279-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3279-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In the last decade, airborne radar surveys have revealed the presence of lakes below the Greenland ice sheet. However, little is known about their properties, including their depth and the volume of water they store. We performed a ground-based geophysics survey in northwestern Greenland and, for the first time, were able to image the depth of a subglacial lake and estimate its volume. Our findings have implications for the thermal state and stability of the ice sheet in northwest Greenland.
Hannah R. Field, William H. Armstrong, and Matthias Huss
The Cryosphere, 15, 3255–3278, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3255-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3255-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The growth of a glacier lake alters the hydrology, ecology, and glaciology of its surrounding region. We investigate modern glacier lake area change across northwestern North America using repeat satellite imagery. Broadly, we find that lakes downstream from glaciers grew, while lakes dammed by glaciers shrunk. Our results suggest that the shape of the landscape surrounding a glacier lake plays a larger role in determining how quickly a lake changes than climatic or glaciologic factors.
Chloé Scholzen, Thomas V. Schuler, and Adrien Gilbert
The Cryosphere, 15, 2719–2738, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2719-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2719-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We use a two-dimensional model of water flow below the glaciers in Kongsfjord, Svalbard, to investigate how different processes of surface-to-bed meltwater transfer affect subglacial hydraulic conditions. The latter are important for the sliding motion of glaciers, which in some cases exhibit huge variations. Our findings indicate that the glaciers in our study area undergo substantial sliding because water is poorly evacuated from their base, with limited influence from the surface hydrology.
Andreas Kellerer-Pirklbauer, Michael Avian, Douglas I. Benn, Felix Bernsteiner, Philipp Krisch, and Christian Ziesler
The Cryosphere, 15, 1237–1258, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1237-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1237-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Present climate warming leads to glacier recession and formation of lakes. We studied the nature and rate of lake evolution in the period 1998–2019 at Pasterze Glacier, Austria. We detected for instance several large-scale and rapidly occurring ice-breakup events from below the water level. This process, previously not reported from the European Alps, might play an important role at alpine glaciers in the future as many glaciers are expected to recede into valley basins allowing lake formation.
Christian Schoof
The Cryosphere, 14, 3175–3194, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3175-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3175-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Glacier lake outburst floods are major glacial hazards in which ice-dammed reservoirs rapidly drain, often in a recurring fashion. The main flood phase typically involves a growing channel being eroded into ice by water flow. What is poorly understood is how that channel first comes into being. In this paper, I investigate how an under-ice drainage system composed of small, naturally occurring voids can turn into a channel and how this can explain the cyclical behaviour of outburst floods.
Samuel J. Cook, Poul Christoffersen, Joe Todd, Donald Slater, and Nolwenn Chauché
The Cryosphere, 14, 905–924, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-905-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-905-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This paper models how water flows beneath a large Greenlandic glacier and how the structure of the drainage system it flows in changes over time. We also look at how this affects melting driven by freshwater plumes at the glacier front, as well as the implications for glacier flow and sea-level rise. We find an active drainage system and plumes exist year round, contradicting previous assumptions and suggesting more melting may not slow the glacier down, unlike at other sites in Greenland.
Camilo Rada and Christian Schoof
The Cryosphere, 12, 2609–2636, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2609-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2609-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We analyse a large glacier borehole pressure dataset and provide a holistic view of the observations, suggesting a consistent picture of the evolution of the subglacial drainage system. Some aspects are consistent with the established understanding and others ones are not. We propose that most of the inconsistencies arise from the capacity of some areas of the bed to become hydraulically isolated. We present an adaptation of an existing drainage model that incorporates this phenomena.
Cited articles
Aggarwal, S., Rai, S. C., Thakur, P. K., and Emmer, A.: Inventory and recently increasing GLOF susceptibility of glacial lakes in Sikkim, Eastern Himalaya, Geomorphology, 295, 39–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.06.014, 2017.
Alho, P. and Aaltonen, J.: Comparing a 1D hydraulic model with a 2D hydraulic model for the simulation of extreme glacial outburst floods, Hydrol. Process., 22, 1537–1547. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6692, 2008.
Allen, S. K., Rastner, P., Arora, M., Huggel, C., and Stoffel, M.: Lake outburst and debris flow disaster at Kedarnath, June 2013: hydrometeorological triggering and topographic predisposition, Landslides, 13, 1479–1491, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-015-0584-3, 2015.
Anacona, P. I., Mackintosh, A., and Norton, K. P.: Hazardous processes and events from glacier and permafrost areas: lessons from the Chilean and Argentinean Andes, Earth Surf. Process. Landf., 40, 2–21, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3524, 2015a.
Anacona, P. I., Mackintosh, A., and Norton, K.: Reconstruction of a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) in the Engano Valley, Chilean Patagonia: Lessons for GLOF risk management, Sci. Total Environ., 527–528, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.096, 2015b.
Bolch, T., Buchroithner, M. F., Peters, J., Baessler, M., and Bajracharya, S.: Identification of glacier motion and potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the Mt. Everest region/Nepal using spaceborne imagery, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 1329–1340, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-8-1329-2008, 2008.
Boyce, E. S., Motyka, R. J., and Truffer, M.: Flotation and retreat of a lake-calving terminus, Mendenhall Glacier, southeast Alaska, USA, J. Glaciol., 53, 211–224, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756507782202928, 2007.
Carrivick, J. L. and Tweed, F. S.: Proglacial lakes: character, behaviour and geological importance, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 78, 34–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.07.028, 2013.
Carrivick, J. L. and Tweed, F. S.: A global assessment of the societal impacts of glacier outburst floods, Glob. Planet. Change, 144, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.07.001, 2016.
Carrivick, J. L., Tweed, F. S., Sutherland, J. L., and Mallalieu, J.: Toward numerical modeling of interactions between ice-marginal proglacial lakes and glaciers, Front. Earth Sci., 8, 577068, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.577068, 2020.
Cook, S. J. and Quincey, D. J.: Estimating the volume of Alpine glacial lakes, Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 559–575, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-559-2015, 2015.
Coulombe, S., Fortier, D., Bouchard, F., Paquette, M., Charbonneau, S., Lacelle, D., Laurion, I., and Pienitz, R.: Contrasted geomorphological and limnological properties of thermokarst lakes formed in buried glacier ice and ice-wedge polygon terrain, The Cryosphere, 16, 2837–2857, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2837-2022, 2022.
Drenkhan, F., Huggel, C., Guardamino, L., and Haeberli, W.: Managing risks and future options from new lakes in the deglaciating Andes of Peru: The example of the Vilcanota-Urubamba basin, Sci. Total Environ., 665, 465–483, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.070, 2019.
Duan, H., Yao, X., Zhang, Y., Jin, H., Wang, Q., Du, Z., Hu, J., Wang, B., and Wang, Q.: Lake volume and potential hazards of moraine-dammed glacial lakes – a case study of Bienong Co, southeastern Tibetan Plateau, The Cryosphere, 17, 591–616, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-591-2023, 2023.
Echelmeyer, K. and Wang, Z. X.: Direct observation of basal sliding and deformation of basal drift at sub-freezing temperatures, J. Glaciol., 33, 83–98, https://doi.org/10.3189/s0022143000005396, 1987.
Emmer, A. and Vilímek, V.: New method for assessing the susceptibility of glacial lakes to outburst floods in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 3461–3479, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-3461-2014, 2014.
Emmer, A., Klimeš, J., Mergili, M., Vilímek, V., and Cochachin, A.: 882 lakes of the Cordillera Blanca: An inventory, classification, evolution and assessment of susceptibility to outburst floods, Catena, 147, 269–279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.032, 2016.
Emmer, A., Allen, S. K., Carey, M., Frey, H., Huggel, C., Korup, O., Mergili, M., Sattar, A., Veh, G., Chen, T. Y., Cook, S. J., Correas-Gonzalez, M., Das, S., Diaz Moreno, A., Drenkhan, F., Fischer, M., Immerzeel, W. W., Izagirre, E., Joshi, R. C., Kougkoulos, I., Kuyakanon Knapp, R., Li, D., Majeed, U., Matti, S., Moulton, H., Nick, F., Piroton, V., Rashid, I., Reza, M., Ribeiro de Figueiredo, A., Riveros, C., Shrestha, F., Shrestha, M., Steiner, J., Walker-Crawford, N., Wood, J. L., and Yde, J. C.: Progress and challenges in glacial lake outburst flood research (2017–2021): a research community perspective, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 3041–3061, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3041-2022, 2022a.
Emmer, A., Wood, J. L., Cook, S. J., Harrison, S., Wilson, R., Diaz-Moreno, A., Reynolds, J. M., Torres, J. C., Yarleque, C., Mergili, M., Jara, H. W., Bennett, G., Caballero, A., Glasser, N. F., Melgarejo, E., Riveros, C., Shannon, S., Turpo, E., Tinoco, T., Torres, L., Garay, D., Villafane, H., Garrido, H., Martinez, C., Apaza, N., Araujo, J., and Poma, C.: 160 glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) across the Tropical Andes since the Little Ice Age, Global Planet. Change, 208, 103722, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103722, 2022b.
Erokhin, S. A., Zaginaev, V. V., Meleshko, A. A., Ruiz-Villanueva, V., Petrakov, D. A., Chernomorets, S. S., Viskhadzhieva, K. S., Tutubalina, O. V., and Stoffel, M.: Debris flows triggered from non-stationary glacier lake outbursts: the case of the Teztor Lake complex (Northern Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan), Landslides, 15, 83–98, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0862-3, 2018.
Evans, S. G.: The maximum discharge of outburst floods caused by the breaching of man-made and natural dams, Can. Geotech. J., 23, 385–387, https://doi.org/10.1139/t87-062, 1986.
Evers, F. M., Heller, V., Fuchs, H., Hager, W. H., and Boes, R. M.: Landslide-generated Impulse Waves in Reservoirs: Basics and Computation, VAW-Mitteilungen, 254, 2019.
Falatkova, K., Šobr, M., Neureiter, A., Schöner, W., Janský, B., Häusler, H., Engel, Z., and Beneš, V.: Development of proglacial lakes and evaluation of related outburst susceptibility at the Adygine ice-debris complex, northern Tien Shan, Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 301–320, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-301-2019, 2019.
Field, H. R., Armstrong, W. H., and Huss, M.: Gulf of Alaska ice-marginal lake area change over the Landsat record and potential physical controls, The Cryosphere, 15, 3255–3278, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3255-2021, 2021.
Frey, H., Huggel, C., Chisolm, R. E., Baer, P., McArdell, B., Cochachin, A., and Portocarrero, C.: Multi-source glacial lake outburst flood hazard assessment and mapping for Huaraz, Cordillera Blanca, Peru, Front. Earth Sci., 6, 210, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2018.00210, 2018.
Fujita, K., Sakai, A., Takenaka, S., Nuimura, T., Surazakov, A. B., Sawagaki, T., and Yamanokuchi, T.: Potential flood volume of Himalayan glacial lakes, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 1827–1839, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-13-1827-2013, 2013.
Gu, C., Li, S., Liu, M., Hu, K., and Wang, P.: Monitoring Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) of Lake Merzbacher Using Dense Chinese High-Resolution Satellite Images, Remote Sens., 15, 1941, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15071941, 2023.
Haresign, E. and Warren, C. R.: Melt rates at calving termini: a study at Glaciar León, Chilean Patagonia, Geol. Soc. Lond. Special Publications, 242, 99–109, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2005.242.01.09, 2005.
Heller, V., Hager, W. H., and Minor, H. E.: Landslide Generated Impulse Waves in Reservoirs, Zurich, Mitteilungen Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau, Hydrologie und Glaziologie (VAW), ETH Zürich, 217, 2009.
Huggel, C., Kääb, A., Haeberli, W., Haeberli, W., Teysseire, P., and Paul, F.: Remote sensing based assessment of hazards from glacier lake outbursts: a case study in the Swiss Alps, Can. Geotech. J., 39, 316–330, https://doi.org/10.1139/t01-099, 2002.
Hugonnet, R., McNabb, R., Berthier, E., Menounos, B., Nuth, C., Girod, L., Farinotti, D., Huss, M., Dussaillant, I., Brun, F., and Kääb, A.: Accelerated global glacier mass loss in the early twenty-first century, Nature, 592, 726–731, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03436-z, 2021.
Kapitsa, V., Shahgedanova, M., Machguth, H., Severskiy, I., and Medeu, A.: Assessment of evolution and risks of glacier lake outbursts in the Djungarskiy Alatau, Central Asia, using Landsat imagery and glacier bed topography modelling, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1837–1856, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1837-2017, 2017.
Khanal, N. R., Hu, J. M., and Mool, P.: Glacial lake outburst flood risk in the Poiqu/Bhote Koshi/Sun Koshi river basin in the Central Himalayas, Mt. Res. Dev., 35, 351–364, https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-15-00009, 2015.
Kougkoulos, I., Cook, S. J., Edwards, L. A., Clarke, L. J., Symeonakis, E., Dortch, J. M., and Nesbitt, K.: Modelling glacial lake outburst flood impacts in the Bolivian Andes, Nat. Hazard, 94, 1415–1438, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3486-6, 2018.
Li, D., Shangguan, D. H, Wang, X., Ding, Y. J., Su, P. C., Liu, R. L., and Wang, M. X.: Expansion and hazard risk assessment of glacial lake Jialong Co in the central Himalayas by using an unmanned surface vessel and remote sensing, Sci. Total Environ., 784, 147249, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147249, 2021.
Linsbauer, A., Frey, H., Haeberli, W., Machguth, H., Azam, M. F., and Allen, S.: Modelling glacier-bed overdeepenings and possible future lakes for the glaciers in the Himalaya—Karakoram region, Ann. Glaciol., 57, 119–130, https://doi.org/10.3189/2016AoG71A627, 2016.
Liu, Q., Mayer, C., Wang, X., Nie, Y., Wu, K. P., Wei, J. F., and Liu, S. Y.: Interannual flow dynamics driven by frontal retreat of a lake-terminating glacier in the Chinese Central Himalaya, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 546, 116450, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116450, 2020.
Lliboutry, L., Arnao, B. M., Pautre, A., and Schneider, B.: Glaciological problems set by the control of dangerous lakes in Cordillera Blanca, Peru. I. Historical failures of morainic dams, their causes and prevention, J. Glaciol., 18, 239–254, https://doi.org/10.1017/S002214300002133X, 1977.
Loriaux, T. and Casassa, G.: Evolution of glacial lakes from the Northern Patagonia Icefield and terrestrial water storage in a sea-level rise context, Glob. Planet. Change, 102, 33–40, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.12.012, 2013.
Lützow, N., Veh, G., and Korup, O.: A global database of historic glacier lake outburst floods, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 2983–3000, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-2983-2023, 2023.
Ma, J. S., Song, C. Q., and Wang, Y. J.: Spatially and Temporally Resolved Monitoring of Glacial Lake Changes in Alps During the Recent Two Decades, Front. Earth Sci., 9, 723386, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.723386, 2021.
Mallalieu, J., Carrivick, J. L., Quincey, D. J., and Smith, M. W.: Calving seasonality associated with melt-undercutting and lake ice cover, Geophys. Res. Let., 47, e2019GL086561, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086561, 2020.
Maurer, J. M., Schaefer, J. M., Russell, J. B., Rupper, S., Wangdi, N., Putnam, A. E., and Young, N.: Seismic observations, numerical modeling, and geomorphic analysis of a glacier lake outburst flood in the Himalayas, Sci. Adv., 6, eaba3645, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba3645, 2020.
Mergili, M., Fischer, J.-T., Krenn, J., and Pudasaini, S. P.: r.avaflow v1, an advanced open-source computational framework for the propagation and interaction of two-phase mass flows, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 553–569, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-553-2017, 2017.
Mergili, M., Emmer, A., Juricova, A., Cochachin, A., Fischer, G. T., Huggel, C., and Pudasaini, S. P.: How well can we simulate complex hydro-geomorphic process chains? The 2012 multi-lake outburst flood in the Santa Cruz Valley (Cordillera Blanca, Peru), Earth Surf. Process. Landf., 43, 1373–1389, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4318, 2018.
Mergili, M., Pudasaini, S. P., Emmer, A., Fischer, J.-T., Cochachin, A., and Frey, H.: Reconstruction of the 1941 GLOF process chain at Lake Palcacocha (Cordillera Blanca, Peru), Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 93–114, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-93-2020, 2020.
Mertes, J. R., Thompson, S. S., Booth, A. D., Gulley, J. D., and Benn, D. I.: A conceptual model of supra-glacial lake formation on debris-covered glaciers based on GPR facies analysis. Earth Surf. Process. Landf., 42, 903–914, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4068, 2017.
Miles, E. S., Watson, C. S., Brun, F., Berthier, E., Esteves, M., Quincey, D. J., Miles, K. E., Hubbard, B., and Wagnon, P.: Glacial and geomorphic effects of a supraglacial lake drainage and outburst event, Everest region, Nepal Himalaya, The Cryosphere, 12, 3891–3905, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3891-2018, 2018.
Minowa, M., Schaefer, M., and Skvarca, P.: Effects of topography on dynamics and mass loss of lake-terminating glaciers in southern Patagonia, J. Glaciol., 2023, 1–18, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2023.42, 2023.
Muñoz, R., Huggel, C., Frey, H., Cochachin, A., and Haeberli, W.: Glacial lake depth and volume estimation based on a large bathymetric dataset from the Cordillera Blanca, Peru, Earth Surf. Process. Landf., 45, 1510–1527, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4826, 2020.
Nie, Y., Liu, Q., Wang, J. D., Zhang, Y. L., Sheng, Y. W., and Liu, S. Y.: An inventory of historical glacial lake outburst floods in the Himalayas based on remote sensing observations and geomorphological analysis, Geomorphology, 308, 91–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.02.002, 2018.
Nie, Y., Liu, W., Liu, Q., Hu, X., and Westoby, M. J.: Reconstructing the Chongbaxia Tsho glacial lake outburst flood in the Eastern Himalaya: Evolution, process and impacts, Geomorphology, 370, 107393, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107393, 2020.
O'Connor, J. E., Hardison III, J. H., and Costa, J. E.: Debris Flows from Failures of Neoglacial-Age Moraine Dams in the Three Sisters and Mount Jefferson Wilderness Areas, Oregon, 1610, 105 pp., 2001.
Osti, R. and Egashira, S.: Hydrodynamic characteristics of the Tam Pokhari glacial lake outburst flood in the Mt. Everest region, Nepal, Hydrol. Process., 23, 2943–2955, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7405, 2009.
Patel, L. K., Sharma, P., Laluraj, C. M., Thamban, M., Singh, A., and Ravindra, R.: A geospatial analysis of Samudra Tapu and Gepang Gath glacial lakes in the Chandra Basin, Western Himalaya, Nat. Hazard, 86, 1275–1290, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-017-2743-4, 2017.
Petrov, M. A., Sabitov, T. Y., Tomashevskaya, I. G., Glazirin, G. E., Chernomorets, S. S., Savernyuk, E. A., Tutubalina, O. V., Petrakov, D. A., Sokolov, L. S., Dokukin, M. D., Mountrakis, G., Ruiz-Villanueva, V., and Stoffel, M.: Glacial lake inventory and lake outburst potential in Uzbekistan, Sci. Total Environ., 592, 228–242, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.068, 2017.
Qi, M. M., Liu, S. Y., Wu, K. P., Zhu, Y., Xie, F. M., Jin, H., Gao, Y. P., and Yao, X. J.: Improving the accuracy of glacial lake volume estimation: A case study in the Poiqu basin, central Himalayas, J. Hydrol., 610, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127973, 2022.
Richardson, S. D. and Reynolds, J. M.: An overview of glacial hazards in the Himalayas, Quaternary Int., 65–6, 31–47, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(99)00035-X, 2000.
Rick, B., McGrath, D., Armstrong, W., and McCoy, S. W.: Dam type and lake location characterize ice-marginal lake area change in Alaska and NW Canada between 1984 and 2019, The Cryosphere, 16, 297–314, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-297-2022, 2022.
Sakai, A.: Glacial lakes in the Himalayas: a review on formation and expansion processes, Glob. Environ. Res., 16, 23–30, 2012.
Sattar, A., Haritashya, U. K., Kargel, J. S., Leonard, G. J., Shugar, D. H., and Chase, D. V.: Modeling lake outburst and downstream hazard assessment of the Lower Barun Glacial Lake, Nepal Himalaya, J. Hydrol., 598, 126208, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126208, 2021.
Sattar, A., Allen, S., Mergili, M., Haeberli, W., Frey, H., Kulkarni, A. V., Haritashya, U. K., Huggel, C., Goswami, A., and Ramsankaran, R.: Modeling Potential Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Process Chains and Effects From Artificial Lake-Level Lowering at Gepang Gath Lake, Indian Himalaya, J. Geophy. Res.-Earth Surf., 128, e2022JF006826, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JF006826, 2023.
Schneider, D., Huggel, C., Cochachin, A., Guillén, S., and García, J.: Mapping hazards from glacier lake outburst floods based on modelling of process cascades at Lake 513, Carhuaz, Peru, Adv. Geosci., 35, 145–155, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-35-145-2014, 2014.
Sharma, R. K., Pradhan, P., Sharma, N. P., and Shrestha, D. G.: Remote sensing and in situ-based assessment of rapidly growing South Lhonak glacial lake in eastern Himalaya, India, Nat. Hazard, 93, 393–409, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3305-0, 2018.
Shugar, D. H., Burr, A., Haritashya, U. K., Kargel, J. S., Watson, C. S., Kennedy, M. C., Bevington, A. R., Betts, R. A., Harrison, S., and Strattman, K.: Rapid worldwide growth of glacial lakes since 1990, Nat. Clim. Change, 10, 939–945, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0855-4, 2020.
Singh, H., Varade, D., de Vries, M. V. W., Adhikari, K., Rawat, M., Awasthi, S., and Rawat, D.: Assessment of potential present and future glacial lake outburst flood hazard in the Hunza valley: A case study of Shisper and Mochowar glacier, Sci. Total Environ., 868, 161717, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161717, 2023.
Somos-Valenzuela, M. A., McKinney, D. C., Byers, A. C., Rounce, D. R., Portocarrero, C., and Lamsal, D.: Assessing downstream flood impacts due to a potential GLOF from Imja Tsho in Nepal, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 1401–1412, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-1401-2015, 2015.
Sugiyama, S., Skvarca, P., Naito, N., Enomoto, H., Tsutaki, S., Tone, K., Marinsek, S., and Aniya, M.: Ice speed of a calving glacier modulated by small fluctuations in basal water pressure, Nat. Geosci., 4, 597–600, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1218, 2011.
Sugiyama, S., Minowa, M., Sakakibara, D., Skvarca, P., Sawagaki, T., Ohashi, Y., Naito, N., and Chikita, K.: Thermal structure of proglacial lakes in Patagonia, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth Surf., 121, 2270–2286, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JF004084, 2016.
Sugiyama, S., Minowa, M., and Schaefer, M.: Underwater ice terrace observed at the front of Glaciar Grey, a freshwater calving glacier in Patagonia, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 2602–2609, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL081441, 2019.
Sugiyama, S., Minowa, M., Fukamachi, Y., Hata, S., Yamamoto, Y., Sauter, T., Schneider, C., and Schaefer, M.: Subglacial discharge controls seasonal variations in the thermal structure of a glacial lake in Patagonia, Nat. Commun., 12, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26578-0, 2021.
Sutherland, J. L., Carrivick, J. L., Gandy, N., Shulmeister, J., Quincey, D. J., and Cornford, S. L.: Proglacial lakes control glacier geometry and behavior during recession, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2020GL088865, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088865, 2020.
Veh, G., Korup, O., and Walz, A.: Hazard from Himalayan glacier lake outburst floods, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 117, 907–912, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1914898117, 2020.
Wang, X., Liu, S., Ding, Y., Guo, W., Jiang, Z., Lin, J., and Han, Y.: An approach for estimating the breach probabilities of moraine-dammed lakes in the Chinese Himalayas using remote-sensing data, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 3109–3122, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-3109-2012, 2012.
Wang, X., Guo, X., Yang, C., Liu, Q., Wei, J., Zhang, Y., Liu, S., Zhang, Y., Jiang, Z., and Tang, Z.: Glacial lake inventory of high-mountain Asia in 1990 and 2018 derived from Landsat images, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 2169–2182, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2169-2020, 2020.
Wang, W. C., Gao, Y., Anacona, P. I., Lei, Y. B., Xiang, Y., Zhang, G. Q., Li, S. H., and Lu, A. X.: Integrated hazard assessment of Cirenmaco glacial lake in Zhangzangbo valley, Central Himalayas, Geomorphology, 306, 292–305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.08.013, 2018.
Watson, C. S., Quincey, D. J., Carrivick, J. L., Smith, M. W., Rowan, A. V., and Richardson, R.: Heterogeneous water storage and thermal regime of supraglacial ponds on debris-covered glaciers, Earth Surf. Process. Landf., 43, 229–241, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4236, 2018.
Watson, C. S., Kargel, J. S., Shugar, D. H., Haritashya, U. K., Schiassi, E., and Furfaro, R.: Mass Loss From Calving in Himalayan Proglacial Lakes Front. Earth Sci. 7, 342, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00342, 2020.
Wei, J., Liu, S., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., Jiang, Z., Wu, K., Zhang, Z., and Zhang, T.: Longbasaba Glacier recession and contribution to its proglacial lake volume between 1988 and 2018, J. Glaciol., 67, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2020.119, 2021.
Westoby, M. J., Glasser, N. F., Brasington, J., Hambrey, M. J., Quincey, D. J., and Reynolds, J. M.: Modelling outburst floods from moraine-dammed glacial lakes, Earth-Sci. Rev., 134, 137–159, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.03.009, 2014.
Wood, J. L., Harrison, S., Wilson, R., Emmer, A., Yarleque, C., Glasser, N. F., Torres, J. C., Caballero, A., Araujo, J., Bennett, G. L., Diaz-Moreno, A., Garay, D., Jara, H., Poma, C., Reynolds, J. M., Riveros, C. A., Romero, E., Shannon, S., Tinoco, T., Turpo, E., and Villafane, H.: Contemporary glacial lakes in the Peruvian Andes, Glob. Planet. Change, 204, 103574, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103574, 2021.
Yao, T. D., Thompson, L., Yang, W., Yu, W. S., Gao, Y., Guo, X. J., Yang, X. X., Duan, K. Q., Zhao, H. B., Xu, B. Q., Pu, J. C., Lu, A. X., Xiang, Y., Kalltel, D. B., and Joswiak, D.: Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings, Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 663–667, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1580, 2012.
Yao, T. D., Xue, Y. K., Chen, D. L., Chen, F. H., Thompson, L., Cui, P., Koike, T., K.-M. Lau, W., Lettenmaier, D., Mosbrugger, V., Zhang, R. H., Xu, B. Q., Dozier, J., Gillespie, T., Gu, Y., Kang, S. C., Piao, S. L., Sugimoto, S., Ueno, K., Wang, L., Wang, W. C., Zhang, F., Sheng, Y. W., Guo, W. D., Ailikun, Yang, X. X., Ma, Y. M., Shen, S. S. P., Su, Z. B., Chen, F., Liang, S. L., Liu, Y. M., Singh, V. P., Yang, K., Yang, D. Q., Zhao, X. Q., Qian, Y., Zhang, Y., and Li, Q.: Recent third pole's rapid warming accompanies cryospheric melt and water cycle intensification and interactions between monsoon and environment: Multidisciplinary approach with observations, modeling, and analysis, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 100, 423–444, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0057.1, 2019.
Yao, X. J., Liu, S. Y., Sun, M. P., Wei, J. F., and Guo, W. Q.: Volume calculation and analysis of the changes in moraine-dammed lakes in the north Himalaya: a case study of Longbasaba lake, J. Glaciol., 58, 753–760, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JoG11J048, 2012.
Yao, X. J., Liu, S. Y., Han, L., Sun, M. P., and Zhao, L. L.: Definition and classification system of glacial lake for inventory and hazards study, J. Geogr. Sci., 28, 193–205, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-018-1467-z, 2018.
Zemp, M., Huss, M., Thibert, E., McNabb, R., Huber, J., Barandun, M., Machguth, H., Nussbaumer, S. U., Gärtner-roer, I., Thomson, L., Paul, F., Maussion, F., Kutuzov, S., and Cogley, J. G.: Global glacier mass changes and their contributions to sea-level rise from 1961 to 2016, Nature, 568, 382–386, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1071-0, 2019.
Zhang, G.: Bathymetry data of glacial lakes in the greater Himalaya, figshare [data set], https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.21569175.v1, 2022.
Zhang, G. Q., Yao, T. D., Xie, H. J., Wang, W. C., and Yang, W.: An inventory of glacial lakes in the Third Pole region and their changes in response to global warming, Glob. Planet. Change, 131, 148–157, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.05.013, 2015.
Zhang, G. Q., Bolch, T., Yao, T. D., Rounce, D. R., Chen, W. F., Veh, G., King, O., Allen, S. K., Wang, M., and Wang, W. C.: Underestimated mass loss from lake-terminating glaciers in the greater Himalaya, Nat. Geosci., 16, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01150-1, 2023.
Zhang, T. G., Wang, W. C., Gao, T. G., and An, B. S.: Simulation and Assessment of Future Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in the Poiqu River Basin, Central Himalayas, Water, 13, 1376, https://doi.org/10.3390/w13101376, 2021.
Zhang, T. G., Wang, W. C., An, B. S., Gao, T. G., and Yao, T. D.: Ice thickness and morphological analysis reveal the future glacial lake distribution and formation probability in the Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings, Glob. Planet. Change, 216, 103923, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103923, 2022.
Zheng, G., Mergili, M., Emmer, A., Allen, S., Bao, A., Guo, H., and Stoffel, M.: The 2020 glacial lake outburst flood at Jinwuco, Tibet: causes, impacts, and implications for hazard and risk assessment, The Cryosphere, 15, 3159–3180, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3159-2021, 2021.
Short summary
Detailed glacial lake bathymetry surveys are essential for accurate glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) simulation and risk assessment. We creatively developed a conceptual model for glacial lake bathymetric distribution. The basic idea is that the statistical glacial lake volume–area curves conform to a power-law relationship indicating that the idealized geometric shape of the glacial lake basin should be hemispheres or cones.
Detailed glacial lake bathymetry surveys are essential for accurate glacial lake outburst flood...
