Articles | Volume 15, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
03 Mar 2021
Research article |
| 03 Mar 2021
| 03 Mar 2021
Ice content and interannual water storage changes of an active rock glacier in the dry Andes of Argentina
Christian Halla
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Geography, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
Jan Henrik Blöthe
Institute of Environmental Social Sciences and Geography, University
of Freiburg, 79085 Freiburg, Germany
Carla Tapia Baldis
Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias
Ambientales, CCT CONICET, 5500 Mendoza, Argentina
Dario Trombotto Liaudat
Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias
Ambientales, CCT CONICET, 5500 Mendoza, Argentina
Christin Hilbich
Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg,
Switzerland
Christian Hauck
Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg,
Switzerland
Lothar Schrott
Department of Geography, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
Related authors
No articles found.
Tamara Mathys, Muslim Azimshoev, Zhoodarbeshim Bektursunov, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Murataly Duishonakunov, Abdulhamid Kayumov, Nikolay Kassatkin, Vassily Kapitsa, Leo C. P. Martin, Coline Mollaret, Hofiz Navruzshoev, Eric Pohl, Tomas Saks, Intizor Silmonov, Timur Musaev, Ryskul Usubaliev, and Martin Hoelzle
The Cryosphere, 19, 6591–6628, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6591-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6591-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides a comprehensive geophysical dataset on permafrost in the data-scarce Tien Shan and Pamir mountain regions of Central Asia. It also introduces a novel modeling method to quantify ground ice content across different landforms. The findings indicate that this approach is well suited for characterizing ice-rich permafrost, which is crucial for evaluating future water availability and assessing risks associated with thawing permafrost.
Ikram Zangana, Rainer Bell, Lucian Drăguţ, Flavius Sîrbu, and Lothar Schrott
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4787–4806, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-4787-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-4787-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Mapping landslides is essential for understanding hazards and risk assessment. This study used a geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) approach with high-resolution lidar data to map forest-covered historical landslides in Jena, Germany. Optimizing the moving-window size for lidar derivatives improved accuracy, detecting more landslides and reducing errors. This method showcases the potential of lidar-based approaches for global landslide inventory and hazard assessment.
Annette Sophie Bösmeier and Jan Henrik Blöthe
E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 74, 301–324, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-74-301-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-74-301-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We estimated the thickness, spatial distribution, and volumes of alluvial valley fills in the southwestern Black Forest utilizing an extensive borehole database to compile local valley cross sections and model sediment depth above bedrock. Our results reveal considerable spatial heterogeneity and underscore the importance of tectonic boundary conditions on the valley infill in addition to further geologic, hydrologic, and climatologic conditions and processes interacting with fluvial dynamics.
Melanie Stammler, Jan Blöthe, Diego Cusicanqui, Simon Ebert, Rainer Bell, Xavier Bodin, and Lothar Schrott
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4630, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4630, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
Dry Andean (debris-covered) glaciers and rock glaciers are essential to river runoff by contributing meltwaters in this extremely arid area. We quantify surface lowering for 19 glaciers and 3 debris-covered glaciers, and unchanged velocities for 47 rock glaciers in a ground-truthed and Pléiades satellite imagery based integrative glacier-permafrost study on catchment-scale for 2019-2025. For this period, our findings indicate glacial decline next to permafrost stability.
Charlotte E. Engelmann, Frank Preusser, Alexander Fülling, Jakob Wilk, Elisabeth Eiche, Dennis Quandt, Stefan Hergarten, and Jan H. Blöthe
E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 74, 235–262, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-74-235-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-74-235-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
It is unclear since when and how meso-scale central European river systems have been dominated by human instead of natural influences. Here, the floodplain sediments of the Kinzig River, southwestern Germany, were studied as they recorded natural and human landscape changes. Sediment deposition phases were found, the modern phase of which coincides with increased deposition and heavy metal contaminations that correlate with mining records, indicating that the river system has shifted intensely over 1000 years.
Alexandru Onaca, Flavius Sîrbu, Valentin Poncoş, Christin Hilbich, Tazio Strozzi, Petru Urdea, Răzvan Popescu, Oana Berzescu, Bernd Etzelmüller, Alfred Vespremeanu-Stroe, Mirela Vasile, Delia Teleagă, Dan Birtaş, Iosif Lopătiţă, Simon Filhol, Alexandru Hegyi, and Florina Ardelean
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 981–1001, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-981-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-981-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study establishes a methodology for the study of slow-moving rock glaciers in marginal permafrost and provides the basic knowledge for understanding rock glaciers in South East Europe. By using a combination of different methods (remote sensing, geophysical survey, thermal measurements), we found out that, on the transitional rock glaciers, low ground ice content (i.e. below 20 %) produces horizontal displacements of up to 3 cm per year.
Cassandra E. M. Koenig, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, Lukas U. Arenson, and Pablo Wainstein
The Cryosphere, 19, 2653–2676, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2653-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2653-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents the first regional compilation of borehole temperature data from high-altitude permafrost sites in the Andes, providing a baseline of ground thermal conditions. Data from 53 boreholes show thermal characteristics similar to other mountain permafrost areas, but uniquely shaped by Andean topo-climatic conditions. The study emphasizes the need for ongoing monitoring and is a notable collaboration between industry, academia, and regulators in advancing climate change research.
Clemens Moser, Umberto Morra di Cella, Christian Hauck, and Adrián Flores Orozco
The Cryosphere, 19, 143–171, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-143-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We use electrical conductivity and induced polarization in an imaging framework to quantify hydrogeological parameters in the active Gran Sometta rock glacier. The results show high spatial variability in the hydrogeological parameters across the rock glacier and are validated by saltwater tracer tests coupled with 3D electrical conductivity imaging. Hydrogeological information was linked to kinematic data to further investigate its role in rock glacier movement.
Julie Wee, Sebastián Vivero, Tamara Mathys, Coline Mollaret, Christian Hauck, Christophe Lambiel, Jan Beutel, and Wilfried Haeberli
The Cryosphere, 18, 5939–5963, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5939-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study highlights the importance of a multi-method and multi-disciplinary approach to better understand the influence of the internal structure of the Gruben glacier-forefield-connected rock glacier and adjacent debris-covered glacier on their driving thermo-mechanical processes and associated surface dynamics. We were able to discriminate glacial from periglacial processes as their spatio-temporal patterns of surface dynamics and geophysical signatures are (mostly) different.
Mohammad Farzamian, Teddi Herring, Gonçalo Vieira, Miguel Angel de Pablo, Borhan Yaghoobi Tabar, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 18, 4197–4213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4197-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4197-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
An automated electrical resistivity tomography (A-ERT) system was developed and deployed in Antarctica to monitor permafrost and active-layer dynamics. The A-ERT, coupled with an efficient processing workflow, demonstrated its capability to monitor real-time thaw depth progression, detect seasonal and surficial freezing–thawing events, and assess permafrost stability. Our study showcased the potential of A-ERT to contribute to global permafrost monitoring networks.
Theresa Maierhofer, Adrian Flores Orozco, Nathalie Roser, Jonas K. Limbrock, Christin Hilbich, Clemens Moser, Andreas Kemna, Elisabetta Drigo, Umberto Morra di Cella, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 18, 3383–3414, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3383-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we apply an electrical method in a high-mountain permafrost terrain in the Italian Alps, where long-term borehole temperature data are available for validation. In particular, we investigate the frequency dependence of the electrical properties for seasonal and annual variations along a 3-year monitoring period. We demonstrate that our method is capable of resolving temporal changes in the thermal state and the ice / water ratio associated with seasonal freeze–thaw processes.
Wilfried Haeberli, Lukas U. Arenson, Julie Wee, Christian Hauck, and Nico Mölg
The Cryosphere, 18, 1669–1683, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1669-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1669-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers in ice-rich permafrost can be discriminated from debris-covered glaciers. The key physical phenomenon relates to the tight mechanical coupling between the moving frozen body at depth and the surface layer of debris in the case of rock glaciers, as opposed to the virtually inexistent coupling in the case of surface ice with a debris cover. Contact zones of surface ice with subsurface ice in permafrost constitute diffuse landforms beyond either–or-type landform classification.
Bernd Etzelmüller, Ketil Isaksen, Justyna Czekirda, Sebastian Westermann, Christin Hilbich, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 17, 5477–5497, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is widespread in the mountains of Norway and Iceland. Several boreholes were drilled after 1999 for long-term permafrost monitoring. We document a strong warming of permafrost, including the development of unfrozen bodies in the permafrost. Warming and degradation of mountain permafrost may lead to more natural hazards.
Johannes Buckel, Jan Mudler, Rainer Gardeweg, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Regula Frauenfelder, Christof Kneisel, Sebastian Buchelt, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Andreas Hördt, and Matthias Bücker
The Cryosphere, 17, 2919–2940, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study reveals permafrost degradation by repeating old geophysical measurements at three Alpine sites. The compared data indicate that ice-poor permafrost is highly affected by temperature warming. The melting of ice-rich permafrost could not be identified. However, complex geomorphic processes are responsible for this rather than external temperature change. We suspect permafrost degradation here as well. In addition, we introduce a new current injection method for data acquisition.
Thomas O. Hoffmann, Yannik Baulig, Stefan Vollmer, Jan H. Blöthe, Karl Auerswald, and Peter Fiener
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 287–303, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-287-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-287-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We analyzed more than 440 000 measurements from suspended sediment monitoring to show that suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in large rivers in Germany strongly declined by 50 % between 1990 and 2010. We argue that SSC is approaching the natural base level that was reached during the mid-Holocene. There is no simple explanation for this decline, but increased sediment retention in upstream headwaters is presumably the major reason for declining SSC in the large river channels studied.
Adrian Wicki, Peter Lehmann, Christian Hauck, and Manfred Stähli
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1059–1077, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1059-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1059-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Soil wetness measurements are used for shallow landslide prediction; however, existing sites are often located in flat terrain. Here, we assessed the ability of monitoring sites at flat locations to detect critically saturated conditions compared to if they were situated at a landslide-prone location. We found that differences exist but that both sites could equally well distinguish critical from non-critical conditions for shallow landslide triggering if relative changes are considered.
Karianne S. Lilleøren, Bernd Etzelmüller, Line Rouyet, Trond Eiken, Gaute Slinde, and Christin Hilbich
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 975–996, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-975-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-975-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In northern Norway we have observed several rock glaciers at sea level. Rock glaciers are landforms that only form under the influence of permafrost, which is frozen ground. Our investigations show that the rock glaciers are probably not active under the current climate but most likely were active in the recent past. This shows how the Arctic now changes due to climate changes and also how similar areas in currently colder climates will change in the future.
Tamara Mathys, Christin Hilbich, Lukas U. Arenson, Pablo A. Wainstein, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 16, 2595–2615, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2595-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
With ongoing climate change, there is a pressing need to understand how much water is stored as ground ice in permafrost. Still, field-based data on permafrost in the Andes are scarce, resulting in large uncertainties regarding ground ice volumes and their hydrological role. We introduce an upscaling methodology of geophysical-based ground ice quantifications at the catchment scale. Our results indicate that substantial ground ice volumes may also be present in areas without rock glaciers.
Theresa Maierhofer, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Andreas Kemna, and Adrián Flores-Orozco
The Cryosphere, 16, 1903–1925, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1903-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1903-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We extend the application of electrical methods to characterize alpine permafrost using the so-called induced polarization (IP) effect associated with the storage of charges at the interface between liquid and solid phases. We investigate different field protocols to enhance data quality and conclude that with appropriate measurement and processing procedures, the characteristic dependence of the IP response of frozen rocks improves the assessment of thermal state and ice content in permafrost.
Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, Coline Mollaret, Pablo Wainstein, and Lukas U. Arenson
The Cryosphere, 16, 1845–1872, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1845-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1845-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In view of water scarcity in the Andes, the significance of permafrost as a future water resource is often debated focusing on satellite-detected features such as rock glaciers. We present data from > 50 geophysical surveys in Chile and Argentina to quantify the ground ice volume stored in various permafrost landforms, showing that not only rock glacier but also non-rock-glacier permafrost contains significant ground ice volumes and is relevant when assessing the hydrological role of permafrost.
Martin Hoelzle, Christian Hauck, Tamara Mathys, Jeannette Noetzli, Cécile Pellet, and Martin Scherler
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1531–1547, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1531-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1531-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
With ongoing climate change, it is crucial to understand the interactions of the individual heat fluxes at the surface and within the subsurface layers, as well as their impacts on the permafrost thermal regime. A unique set of high-altitude meteorological measurements has been analysed to determine the energy balance at three mountain permafrost sites in the Swiss Alps, where data have been collected since the late 1990s in collaboration with the Swiss Permafrost Monitoring Network (PERMOS).
Bernd Etzelmüller, Justyna Czekirda, Florence Magnin, Pierre-Allain Duvillard, Ludovic Ravanel, Emanuelle Malet, Andreas Aspaas, Lene Kristensen, Ingrid Skrede, Gudrun D. Majala, Benjamin Jacobs, Johannes Leinauer, Christian Hauck, Christin Hilbich, Martina Böhme, Reginald Hermanns, Harald Ø. Eriksen, Tom Rune Lauknes, Michael Krautblatter, and Sebastian Westermann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 97–129, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-97-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-97-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This paper is a multi-authored study documenting the possible existence of permafrost in permanently monitored rockslides in Norway for the first time by combining a multitude of field data, including geophysical surveys in rock walls. The paper discusses the possible role of thermal regime and rockslide movement, and it evaluates the possible impact of atmospheric warming on rockslide dynamics in Norwegian mountains.
Adrian Wicki, Per-Erik Jansson, Peter Lehmann, Christian Hauck, and Manfred Stähli
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4585–4610, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4585-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4585-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Soil moisture information was shown to be valuable for landslide prediction. Soil moisture was simulated at 133 sites in Switzerland, and the temporal variability was compared to the regional occurrence of landslides. We found that simulated soil moisture is a good predictor for landslides, and that the forecast goodness is similar to using in situ measurements. This encourages the use of models for complementing existing soil moisture monitoring networks for regional landslide early warning.
Cited articles
Aizebeokhai, A. P. and Oyeyemi, K. D.: The use of the multiple-gradient
array for geoelectrical resistivity and induced polarization imaging,
J. Appl. Geophys., 111, 364–376, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.10.023, 2014.
Archie, G. E.: The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining Some
Reservoir Characteristics, Petroleum Transactions of American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers (AIME), 146, 54–62, https://doi.org/10.2118/942054-G, 1942.
Arenson, L. and Springman, S.: Triaxial constant stress and constant strain
rate tests on ice-rich permafrost samples, Can. Geotech. J., 42, 412–430, https://doi.org/10.1139/T04-111, 2005.
Arenson, L., Hoelzle, M., and Springman, S.: Borehole deformation
measurements and internal structure of some rock glaciers in Switzerland,
Permafrost Periglac., 13, 117–135, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.414, 2002.
Arenson, L. U. and Jakob, M.: The Significance of Rock Glaciers in the Dry
Andes – A Discussion of Azocar and Brenning (2010) and Brenning and Azocar
(2010), Permafrost Periglac., 21, 282–285, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.693, 2010.
Arenson, L. U., Pastore, S., Trombotto, D., Bolling, S., Quiroz, M. A., and
Ochoa, X. L.: Characteristics of two rock glaciers in the dry Argentinean
Andes based on initial surface investigations, in: Proceedings 6th Canadian Permafrost Conference, Calgary, Alberta, 2010.
Azocar, G. F. and Brenning, A.: Hydrological and Geomorphological
Significance of Rock Glaciers in the Dry Andes, Chile (27–33∘ S), Permafrost Periglac., 21, 42–53, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.669, 2010.
Barnett, T. P., Adam, J. C., and Lettenmaier, D. P.: Potential impacts of a
warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions, Nature,
438, 303–309, 2005.
Barsch, D.: Rockglaciers: indicators for the present and former geoecology
in high mountain environments, Springer, Berlin, 331 pp., 1996.
Berthling, I.: Beyond confusion: Rock glaciers as cryo-conditioned
landforms, Geomorphology, 131, 98–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.05.002, 2011.
Blöthe, J. H., Rosenwinkel, S., Höser, T., and Korup, O.:
Rock-glacier dams in High Asia, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 44, 808–824, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4532, 2019.
Bradley, R. S., Vuille, M., Diaz, H. F., and Vergara, W.: Threats to water
supplies in the tropical Andes, Science, 312, 1755–1756, 2006.
Brasington, J., Langham, J., and Rumsby, B.: Methodological sensitivity of
morphometric estimates of coarse fluvial sediment transport, Geomorphology,
53, 299–316, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00320-3, 2003.
Braun, M. H., Malz, P., Sommer, C., Farías-Barahona, D., Sauter, T.,
Casassa, G., Soruco, A., Skvarca, P., and Seehaus, T. C.: Constraining
glacier elevation and mass changes in South America, Nat. Clim. Change, 9,
130–136, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0375-7, 2019.
Brenning, A.: Geomorphological, hydrological and climatic significance of
rock glaciers in the Andes of Central Chile (33–35∘ S), Permafrost Periglac., 16, 231–240, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.528, 2005.
Brenning, A.: The significance of rock glaciers in the dry Andes – reply to
Arenson, L. and Jakob, M., Permafrost Periglac., 21, 286–288, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.702, 2010.
Buchli, T., Kos, A., Limpach, P., Merz, K., Zhou, X., and Springman, S. M.:
Kinematic investigations on the Furggwanghorn Rock Glacier, Switzerland,
Permafrost Periglac., 29, 3–20, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1968, 2018.
Burger, K. C., Degenhardt Jr., J. J., and Giardino, J. R.: Engineering
geomorphology of rock glaciers, Geomorphology, 31, 93–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00074-4, 1999.
CEAZA: Datos provistos por CEAZA, available at: http://www.ceazamet.cl (last access: 21 January 2020), 2019.
Cicoira, A., Beutel, J., Faillettaz, J., and Vieli, A.: Water controls the
seasonal rhythm of rock glacier flow, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 528, 115844,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115844, 2019.
Colombo, N., Salerno, F., Gruber, S., Freppaz, M., Williams, M., Fratianni,
S., and Giardino, M.: Review: Impacts of permafrost degradation on inorganic
chemistry of surface fresh water, Global Planet. Change, 162, 69–83, 2018a.
Colombo, N., Sambuelli, L., Comina, C., Colombero, C., Giardino, M., Gruber,
S., Viviano, G., Antisari, L. V., and Salerno, F.: Mechanisms linking active
rock glaciers and impounded surface water formation in high-mountain areas, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 43, 417–431, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4257, 2018b.
Corte, A.: The Hydrological Significance of Rock Glaciers, J. Glaciol., 17,
157–158, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000030859, 1976.
Corte, A.: Rock glaciers as permafrost bodies with a debris cover as an
active layer, A hydrological approach, Andes of Mendoza, Argentina, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Permafrost, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, 262–269, 1978.
Croce, F. A. and Milana, J. P.: Internal structure and behaviour of a rock
glacier in the arid Andes of Argentina, Permafrost Periglac., 13, 289–299, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.431, 2002.
Cuffey, K. M. and Paterson, W. S. B.: The physics of glaciers, Academic
Press, Springer, Berlin, 331 pp., 2010.
Dahlin, T. and Zhou, B.: A numerical comparison of 2D resistivity imaging
with 10 electrode arrays, Geophys. Prospect., 52, 379–398, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.2004.00423.x, 2004.
Dall'Asta, E., Forlani, G., Roncella, R., Santise, M., Diotri, F., and Morra di Cella, U.: Unmanned Aerial Systems and DSM matching for rock glacier
monitoring, ISPRS J. Photogramm., 127, 102–114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2016.10.003, 2017.
Draebing, D.: Application of refraction seismics in alpine permafrost
studies: A review, Earth-Sci. Rev., 155, 136–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.02.006, 2016.
Drewes, J., Moreiras, S., and Korup, O.: Permafrost activity and atmospheric
warming in the Argentinian Andes, Geomorphology, 323, 13–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.09.005, 2018.
Duguay, M. A., Edmunds, A., Arenson, L. U., and Wainstein, P. A.:
Quantifying the significance of the hydrological contribution of a rock
glacier – A review, in: GEOQuébec 2015: Challenges From North to South, 68th Canadian Geotechnical Conference and 7th Canadian Permafrost Conference,
Québec, Canada, 2015.
Dussaillant, I., Berthier, E., Brun, F., Masiokas, M., Hugonnet, R., Favier,
V., Rabatel, A., Pitte, P., and Ruiz, L.: Two decades of glacier mass loss
along the Andes, Nat. Geosci., 12, 802–808, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0432-5, 2019.
Duvillard, P. A., Revil, A., Qi, Y., Soueid Ahmed, A., Coperey, A., and
Ravanel, L.: Three-Dimensional Electrical Conductivity and Induced
Polarization Tomography of a Rock Glacier,
J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 123, 9528–9554, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JB015965, 2018.
Förstner, W.: A feature based correspondence algorithm for image
matching, International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 26, 150–166, 1986.
Funk, C., Peterson, P., Landsfeld, M., Pedreros, D., Verdin, J., Shukla, S.,
Husak, G., Rowland, J., Harrison, L., Hoell, A., and Michaelsen, J.: The
climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations – a new environmental
record for monitoring extremes, Scientific Data, 2, 150066, https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2015.66, 2015.
Geiger, S. T., Daniels, J. M., Miller, S. N., and Nicholas, J. W.: Influence
of rock glaciers on stream hydrology in the La Sal Mountains, Utah,
Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 46, 645–658, https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-46.3.645, 2014.
Haeberli, W., Hoelzle, M., Kääb, A., Keller, F., Vonder Mühll, D., and Wagner, S.: Ten years after drilling through the permafrost of the active rock glacier Murtèl, eastern Swiss Alps: answered questions and new perspectives, in: Collection Nordicana, 7th International Conference on Permafrost, 23–27 June 1998, edited by: Lewkowicz, A. G., and Allard, M., Université Laval, Yellowknife, Canada, 403–410, 1998.
Haeberli, W., Hallet, B., Arenson, L., Elconin, R., Humlun, O., Kaab, A.,
Kaufmann, V., Ladanyi, B., Matsuoka, N., Springman, S., and Von der Mühll, D.: Permafrost creep and rock glacier dynamics, Permafrost Periglac., 17, 189–214, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.561, 2006.
Harrington, J. S., Hayashi, M., and Kurylyk, B. L.: Influence of a rock
glacier spring on the stream energy budget and cold-water refuge in an
alpine stream, Hydrol. Process., 31, 4719–4733, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.11391, 2017.
Harrington, J. S., Mozil, A., Hayashi, M., and Bentley, L. R.: Groundwater
flow and storage processes in an inactive rock glacier, Hydrol. Process., 32,
3070–3088, 2018.
Hauck, C.: New Concepts in Geophysical Surveying and Data Interpretation for
Permafrost Terrain, Permafrost Periglac., 24, 131–137, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1774, 2013.
Hauck, C. and Kneisel, C.: Applied Geophysics in Periglacial Environments,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 256 pp., 2008.
Hauck, C., Böttcher, M., and Maurer, H.: A new model for estimating subsurface ice content based on combined electrical and seismic data sets, The Cryosphere, 5, 453–468, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-453-2011, 2011.
Hausmann, H., Krainer, K., Bruckl, E., and Mostler, W.: Internal structure
and ice content of reichenkar rock glacier (Stubai Alps, Austria) assessed
by geophysical investigations, Permafrost Periglac., 18,
351–367, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.601, 2007.
Heredia, N., Rodrıìguez Fernández, L. R., Gallastegui, G., Busquets,
P., and Colombo, F.: Geological setting of the Argentine Frontal Cordillera
in the flat-slab segment (30∘00′–31∘30′ S latitude), J. S. Am. Earth Sci., 15, 79–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-9811(02)00007-X, 2002.
Heredia, N., Farias, P., García-Sansegundo, J., and Giambiagi, L.: The
basement of the Andean Frontal Cordillera in the Cordón del Plata
(Mendoza, Argentina): Geodynamic evolution, Andean. Geol., 39, 242–257,
https://doi.org/10.5027/andgeoV39n2-a03, 2012.
Hilbich, C.: Time-lapse refraction seismic tomography for the detection of ground ice degradation, The Cryosphere, 4, 243–259, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-243-2010, 2010.
Hilbich, C., Hauck, C., Hoelzle, M., Scherler, M., Schudel, L., Voelksch,
I., Muehll, D. V., and Maeusbacher, R.: Monitoring mountain permafrost
evolution using electrical resistivity tomography: A 7-year study of
seasonal, annual, and long-term variations at Schilthorn, Swiss Alps, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 113, F01S90, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007jf000799, 2008.
Hilbich, C., Marescot, L., Hauck, C., Loke, M. H., and Mäusbacher, R.:
Applicability of electrical resistivity tomography monitoring to coarse
blocky and ice-rich permafrost landforms, Permafrost Periglac., 20, 269–284, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.652, 2009.
IANIGLA: Data provided by Instituto Argentino de Nivología,
Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA), “Agua Negra” and
“Diaguita” meteorological stations, available at: http://bdhi.hidricosargentina.gob.ar (last access: 21 January 2020), 2019.
IANIGLA: Inventario Nacional de Glaciares, Informe de la subcuenca río
Blanco Superior, Cuenca del río Jáchal, IANIGLA-CONICET, Ministerio
de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nación, Argentina, 65 pp., 2018.
Ikeda, A.: Combination of conventional geophysical methods for sounding the
composition of rock glaciers in the Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 17, 35–48, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.550, 2006.
Ikeda, A., Matsuoka, N., and Kaab, A.: Fast deformation of perennially
frozen debris in a warm rock glacier in the Swiss Alps: An effect of liquid
water, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 113, F01021, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007jf000859, 2008.
Jones, D. B., Harrison, S., Anderson, K., and Betts, R. A.: Mountain rock
glaciers contain globally significant water stores, Sci. Rep.-UK, 8, 2834, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-21244-w, 2018a.
Jones, D. B., Harrison, S., Anderson, K., Selley, H. L., Wood, J. L., and
Betts, R. A.: The distribution and hydrological significance of rock
glaciers in the Nepalese Himalaya, Global Planet. Change, 160, 123–142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.11.005, 2018b.
Jones, D. B., Harrison, S., Anderson, K., and Whalley, W. B.: Rock glaciers
and mountain hydrology: A review, Earth-Sci. Rev., 193, 66–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.04.001, 2019.
Kääb, A. and Weber, M.: Development of transverse ridges on rock
glaciers: Field measurements and laboratory experiments, Permafrost Periglac., 15, 379–391, 2004.
Kääb, A., Haeberli, W., and Gudmundsson, G. H.: Analysing the creep
of mountain permafrost using high precision aerial photogrammetry: 25 years
of monitoring Gruben Rock Glacier, Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 8, 409–426, 1997.
Kääb, A., Gudmundsson, G. H., and Hoelzle, M.: Surface deformation
of creeping mountain permafrost, Photogrammetric investigations on rock
glacier Murtèl, Swiss Alps,
in: Collection Nordicana, 7th International Conference on Permafrost, 23–27 June 1998, edited by: Lewkowicz, A. G., and Allard, M., Université Laval, Yellowknife, Canada, 531–537, 1998.
Kääb, A., Kaufmann, V., Ladstädter, R., and Eiken, T.: Rock
glacier dynamics: Implications from high-resolution measurements of surface
velocity fields, Permafrost. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Permafrost, 21–25 July 2003, Zurich, Switzerland, edited by: Phillips, M., Springman, S. M. and Arenson, L. U., A.A. Balkema, Lisse, 501–506, 2003.
Kääb, A., Frauenfelder, R., and Roer, I.: On the response of
rockglacier creep to surface temperature increase, Global Planet. Change, 56,
172–187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.07.005, 2007.
Kenner, R., Phillips, M., Beutel, J., Hiller, M., Limpach, P., Pointner, E.,
and Volken, M.: Factors Controlling Velocity Variations at Short-Term,
Seasonal and Multiyear Time Scales, Ritigraben Rock Glacier, Western Swiss
Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 28, 675–684, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1953,
2017.
Kenner, R., Pruessner, L., Beutel, J., Limpach, P., and Phillips, M.: How
rock glacier hydrology, deformation velocities and ground temperatures
interact: Examples from the Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 31, 3–14, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2023, 2020.
King, M. S., Zimmerman, R. W., and Corwin, R. F.: Seismic and Electrical
Properties of Unconsolidated Permafrost, Geophys. Prospect., 36, 349–364, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.1988.tb02168.x, 1988.
Konrad, S. K., Humphrey, N. F., Steig, E. J., Clark, D. H., Potter Jr., N.,
and Pfeffer, W. T.: Rock glacier dynamics and paleoclimatic implications,
Geology, 27, 1131–1134, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<1131:rgdapi>2.3.co;2, 1999.
Krainer, K. and Mostler, W.: Hydrology of active rock glaciers: Examples
from the Austrian Alps, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 34, 142–149, https://doi.org/10.2307/1552465, 2002.
Krainer, K., Mostler, W., and Spötl, C.: Discharge from active rock
glaciers, Austrian Alps: a stable isotope approach, Austrian J. Earth Sci.,
100, 102–112, 2007.
Krainer, K., Bressan, D., Dietre, B., Haas, J. N., Hajdas, I., Lang, K.,
Mair, V., Nickus, U., Reidl, D., Thies, H., and Tonidandel, D.: A
10 300-year-old permafrost core from the active rock glacier Lazaun,
southern Ötztal Alps (South Tyrol, northern Italy), Quaternary Res., 83,
324–335, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2014.12.005, 2017.
Krautblatter, M. and Draebing, D.: Pseudo 3D P wave refraction seismic
monitoring of permafrost in steep unstable bedrock,
J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 119, 287–299, https://doi.org/10.1002/2012jf002638, 2014.
Kummert, M., Delaloye, R., and Braillard, L.: Erosion and sediment transfer
processes at the front of rapidly moving rock glaciers: Systematic
observations with automatic cameras in the western Swiss Alps, Permafrost Periglac., 29, 21–33, 2018.
Langston, G., Bentley, L. R., Hayashi, M., McClymont, A., and Pidlisecky,
A.: Internal structure and hydrological functions of an alpine proglacial
moraine, Hydrol. Process., 25, 2967–2982, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.8144, 2011.
Lecomte, K. L., Milana, J. P., Formica, S. M., and Depetris, P. J.:
Hydrochemical appraisal of ice- and rock-glacier meltwater in the hyperarid
Agua Negra drainage basin, Andes of Argentina, Hydrol. Process., 22,
2180–2195, https://doi.org/10.1002/Hyp.6816, 2008.
Loke, M. H.: Tutorial : 2D and 3D electrical imaging surveys, Geotomo Software, Malaysia, 2018.
Luethi, R., Phillips, M., and Lehning, M.: Estimating Non-Conductive Heat
Flow Leading to Intra-Permafrost Talik Formation at the Ritigraben Rock
Glacier (Western Swiss Alps), Permafrost Periglac., 28,
183–194, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.1911, 2017.
Malmros, J. K., Mernild, S. H., Wilson, R., Tagesson, T., and Fensholt, R.:
Snow cover and snow albedo changes in the central Andes of Chile and
Argentina from daily MODIS observations (2000–2016), Remote Sens. Environ.,
209, 240–252, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.02.072, 2018.
Marescot, L., Loke, M., Chapellier, D., Delaloye, R., Lambiel, C., and
Reynard, E.: Assessing reliability of 2D resistivity imaging in mountain
permafrost studies using the depth of investigation index method,
Near Surf. Geophys., 1, 57–67, 2003.
Marmy, A., Rajczak, J., Delaloye, R., Hilbich, C., Hoelzle, M., Kotlarski, S., Lambiel, C., Noetzli, J., Phillips, M., Salzmann, N., Staub, B., and Hauck, C.: Semi-automated calibration method for modelling of mountain permafrost evolution in Switzerland, The Cryosphere, 10, 2693–2719, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2693-2016, 2016.
Maurer, H. and Hauck, C.: Instruments and methods – Geophysical imaging of
alpine rock glaciers, J. Glaciol., 53, 110–120, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756507781833893, 2007.
McClymont, A. F., Hayashi, M., Bentley, L. R., Muir, D., and Ernst, E.: Groundwater flow and storage within an alpine meadow-talus complex, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 859–872, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-859-2010, 2010.
McClymont, A. F., Hayashi, M., Bentley, L. R., and Liard, J.: Locating and
characterising groundwater storage areas within an alpine watershed using
time-lapse gravity, GPR and seismic refraction methods, Hydrol. Process., 26,
1792–1804, https://doi.org/10.1002/Hyp.9316, 2012.
Mewes, B., Hilbich, C., Delaloye, R., and Hauck, C.: Resolution capacity of geophysical monitoring regarding permafrost degradation induced by hydrological processes, The Cryosphere, 11, 2957–2974, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2957-2017, 2017.
Milana, J. P. and Maturano, A.: Application of Radio Echo Sounding at the
arid Andes of Argentina: the Agua Negra Glacier, Global Planet. Change, 22,
179–191, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8181(99)00035-1, 1999.
Mollaret, C., Hilbich, C., Pellet, C., Flores-Orozco, A., Delaloye, R., and Hauck, C.: Mountain permafrost degradation documented through a network of permanent electrical resistivity tomography sites, The Cryosphere, 13, 2557–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, 2019.
Mollaret, C., Wagner, F. M., Hilbich, C., Scapozza, C., and Hauck, C.:
Petrophysical Joint Inversion Applied to Alpine Permafrost Field Sites to
Image Subsurface Ice, Water, Air, and Rock Contents, Front. Earth Sci., 8, 1–25, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00085, 2020.
Monnier, S. and Kinnard, C.: Internal structure and composition of a rock
glacier in the Andes (upper Choapa valley, Chile) using borehole information
and ground-penetrating radar, Ann. Glaciol., 54, 61–72, https://doi.org/10.3189/2013aog64a107, 2013.
Mosbrucker, A. R., Major, J. J., Spicer, K. R., and Pitlick, J.: Camera
system considerations for geomorphic applications of SfM photogrammetry, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 42, 969–986, 2017.
Musil, M., Maurer, H., Green, A. G., Horstmeyer, H., Nitsche, F. O., Von der Mühll, D., and Springman, S.: Shallow seismic surveying of an Alpine rock glacier, Geophysics, 67, 1701–1710, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1527071, 2002.
Otto, J. C. and Sass, O.: Comparing geophysical methods for talus slope
investigations in the Turtmann valley (Swiss Alps), Geomorphology, 76,
257–272, 2006.
Pellet, C., Hilbich, C., Marmy, A., and Hauck, C.: Soil Moisture Data for
the Validation of Permafrost Models Using Direct and Indirect Measurement
Approaches at Three Alpine Sites, Front. Earth Sci., 3, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2015.00091, 2016.
Rangecroft, S., Harrison, S., and Anderson, K.: Rock Glaciers as Water
Stores in the Bolivian Andes: An Assessment of Their Hydrological
Importance, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 47, 89–98, https://doi.org/10.1657/AAAR0014-029, 2015.
Rangecroft, S., Suggitt, A. J., Anderson, K., and Harrison, S.: Future
climate warming and changes to mountain permafrost in the Bolivian Andes,
Climatic Change, 137, 231–243, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-016-1655-8, 2016.
Rogger, M., Chirico, G. B., Hausmann, H., Krainer, K., Brückl, E.,
Stadler, P., and Blöschl, G.: Impact of mountain permafrost on flow path
and runoff response in a high alpine catchment, Water Resour. Res., 53,
1288–1308, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019341, 2017.
Saavedra, F. A., Kampf, S. K., Fassnacht, S. R., and Sibold, J. S.: Changes in Andes snow cover from MODIS data, 2000–2016, The Cryosphere, 12, 1027–1046, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1027-2018, 2018.
Sandmeier, K. J.: REFLEXW, Version 8.0, Windows™ XP/7/8/10-program for the processing of seismic, acoustic or electromagnetic reflection, refraction and transmission data, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2016.
Schaffer, N., MacDonell, S., Réveillet, M., Yáñez, E., and
Valois, R.: Rock glaciers as a water resource in a changing climate in the
semiarid Chilean Andes, Reg. Environ. Change, 19, 1263–1279, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-01459-3, 2019.
Scherler, M., Hauck, C., Hoelzle, M., Stahli, M., and Volksch, I.: Meltwater
Infiltration into the Frozen Active Layer at an Alpine Permafrost Site,
Permafrost Periglac., 21, 325–334, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.694, 2010.
Scherler, M., Hauck, C., Hoelzle, M., and Salzmann, N.: Modeled sensitivity
of two alpine permafrost sites to RCM-based climate scenarios, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 118, 780–794, https://doi.org/10.1002/Jgrf.20069, 2013.
Schneider, S., Daengeli, S., Hauck, C., and Hoelzle, M.: A spatial and temporal analysis of different periglacial materials by using geoelectrical, seismic and borehole temperature data at Murtèl–Corvatsch, Upper Engadin, Swiss Alps, Geogr. Helv., 68, 265–280, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-68-265-2013, 2013.
Schön, J.: Physical properties of rocks: A workbook, Elsevier, Oxford, 481 pp., 2011.
Schrott, L.: Global solar radiation, soil temperature and permafrost in the
Central Andes, Argentina: A progress report, Permafrost Periglac., 2, 59–66, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.3430020110, 1991.
Schrott, L.: Die Solarstrahlung als steuernder Faktor im Geosystem der
subtropischen semiariden Hochanden (Agua Negra, San Juan, Argentinien), Dissertation, Geographisches Institut der Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany, 199 pp., 1994.
Schrott, L.: Some geomorphological-hydrological aspects of rock glaciers in
the Andes (San Juan, Argentina),
Z. Geomorphol. Supp., 104, 161–173, 1996.
Schrott, L.: The hydrological significance of high mountain permafrost and
its relation to solar radiation, A case study in the high Andes of San Juan,
Argentina, Bamberger Geographische Schriften, 15, 71–84, 1998.
Schrott, L. and Hoffmann, T.: Refraction seismics, in: Applied Geophysics in
Periglacial Environments, edited by: Hauck, C. and Kneisel, C., Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 256 pp., 2008.
Schwalbe, E. and Maas, H. G.: The determination of high-resolution
spatio-temporal glacier motion fields from time-lapse sequences,
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 861–879, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-861-2017, 2017.
Tapia-Baldis, C. and Trombotto-Liaudat, D.: Permafrost model in
coarse-blocky deposits for the Dry Andes, Argentina (28–33∘ S), Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica, 46, 33–58, https://doi.org/10.18172/cig.3802, 2020.
Timur, A.: Velocity of Compressional Waves in Porous Media at Permafrost
Temperatures, Geophysics, 33, 584, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1439954, 1968.
Trombotto, D. and Borzotta, E.: Indicators of present global warming through
changes in active layer-thickness, estimation of thermal diffusivity and
geomorphological observations in the Morenas Coloradas rockglacier, Central
Andes of Mendoza, Argentina, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 55, 321–330,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2008.08.009, 2009.
Trombotto, D., Buk, E., and Hernández, J.: Rock glaciers in the Southern
Central Andes (approx. 33–34S), Cordillera Frontal, Mendoza, Argentina,
Bamberger Geographische Schriften, 19, 145–173, 1999.
Wheaton, J. M., Brasington, J., Darby, S. E., and Sear, D. A.: Accounting
for uncertainty in DEMs from repeat topographic surveys: improved sediment
budgets, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 35, 136–156, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1886, 2010.
Williams, M. W., Knauf, M., Caine, N., Liu, F., and Verplanck, P. L.:
Geochemistry and source waters of rock glacier outflow, Colorado Front
Range, Permafrost Periglac., 17, 13–33, https://doi.org/10.1002/Ppp.535, 2006.
Wirz, V., Gruber, S., Purves, R. S., Beutel, J., Gartner-Roer, I., Gubler,
S., and Vieli, A.: Short-term velocity variations at three rock glaciers and
their relationship with meteorological conditions, Earth Surf. Dynam., 4,
103–123, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-103-2016, 2016.
Short summary
In the semi-arid to arid Andes of Argentina, rock glaciers contain invisible and unknown amounts of ground ice that could become more important in future for the water availability during the dry season. The study shows that the investigated rock glacier represents an important long-term ice reservoir in the dry mountain catchment and that interannual changes of ground ice can store and release significant amounts of annual precipitation.
In the semi-arid to arid Andes of Argentina, rock glaciers contain invisible and unknown amounts...
