Articles | Volume 10, issue 5
The Cryosphere, 10, 1915–1932, 2016
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1915-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
The Cryosphere, 10, 1915–1932, 2016
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1915-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article 05 Sep 2016
Research article | 05 Sep 2016
Sliding of temperate basal ice on a rough, hard bed: creep mechanisms, pressure melting, and implications for ice streaming
Maarten Krabbendam
Related authors
Romesh Palamakumbura, Maarten Krabbendam, Katie Whitbread, and Christian Arnhardt
Solid Earth, 11, 1731–1746, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1731-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1731-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The aim of this paper is to describe, evaluate and develop a simple but robust low-cost method for capturing 2-D fracture network data in GIS and make them more accessible to a broader range of users in both academia and industry. We present a breakdown of the key steps in the methodology, which provides an understanding of how to avoid error and improve the accuracy of the final dataset. The 2-D digital method can be used to interpret traces of 2-D linear features on a wide variety of scales.
Romesh Palamakumbura, Maarten Krabbendam, Katie Whitbread, and Christian Arnhardt
Solid Earth, 11, 1731–1746, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1731-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-1731-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The aim of this paper is to describe, evaluate and develop a simple but robust low-cost method for capturing 2-D fracture network data in GIS and make them more accessible to a broader range of users in both academia and industry. We present a breakdown of the key steps in the methodology, which provides an understanding of how to avoid error and improve the accuracy of the final dataset. The 2-D digital method can be used to interpret traces of 2-D linear features on a wide variety of scales.
Related subject area
Subglacial Processes
Subglacial carbonate deposits as a potential proxy for a glacier's former presence
Brief communication: Heterogenous thinning and subglacial lake activity on Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica
Subglacial lakes and hydrology across the Ellsworth Subglacial Highlands, West Antarctica
The role of electrical conductivity in radar wave reflection from glacier beds
Subglacial permafrost dynamics and erosion inside subglacial channels driven by surface events in Svalbard
Review article: Geothermal heat flow in Antarctica: current and future directions
Quantification of seasonal and diurnal dynamics of subglacial channels using seismic observations on an Alpine glacier
Exceptionally high heat flux needed to sustain the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream
Glaciohydraulic seismic tremors on an Alpine glacier
Subglacial roughness of the Greenland Ice Sheet: relationship with contemporary ice velocity and geology
Airborne radionuclides and heavy metals in high Arctic terrestrial environment as the indicators of sources and transfers of contamination
Subglacial hydrological control on flow of an Antarctic Peninsula palaeo-ice stream
Pervasive cold ice within a temperate glacier – implications for glacier thermal regimes, sediment transport and foreland geomorphology
Combined diurnal variations of discharge and hydrochemistry of the Isunnguata Sermia outlet, Greenland Ice Sheet
Connected subglacial lake drainage beneath Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica
Active subglacial lakes and channelized water flow beneath the Kamb Ice Stream
Brief Communication: Twelve-year cyclic surging episodes at Donjek Glacier in Yukon, Canada
Tremor during ice-stream stick slip
A new methodology to simulate subglacial deformation of water-saturated granular material
Transition of flow regime along a marine-terminating outlet glacier in East Antarctica
Boundary conditions of an active West Antarctic subglacial lake: implications for storage of water beneath the ice sheet
A balanced water layer concept for subglacial hydrology in large-scale ice sheet models
The "tipping" temperature within Subglacial Lake Ellsworth, West Antarctica and its implications for lake access
Interaction between ice sheet dynamics and subglacial lake circulation: a coupled modelling approach
Matej Lipar, Andrea Martín-Pérez, Jure Tičar, Miha Pavšek, Matej Gabrovec, Mauro Hrvatin, Blaž Komac, Matija Zorn, Nadja Zupan Hajna, Jian-Xin Zhao, Russell N. Drysdale, and Mateja Ferk
The Cryosphere, 15, 17–30, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-17-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-17-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The U–Th ages of subglacial carbonate deposits from a recently exposed surface previously occupied by the disappearing glacier in the SE European Alps suggest the glacier’s presence throughout the entire Holocene. These thin deposits, formed by regelation, would have been easily eroded if exposed during previous Holocene climatic optima. The age data indicate the glacier’s present unprecedented level of retreat and the potential of subglacial carbonates to act as palaeoclimate proxies.
Andrew O. Hoffman, Knut Christianson, Daniel Shapero, Benjamin E. Smith, and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 14, 4603–4609, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4603-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4603-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The West Antarctic Ice Sheet has long been considered geometrically prone to collapse, and Thwaites Glacier, the largest glacier in the Amundsen Sea, is likely in the early stages of disintegration. Using observations of Thwaites Glacier velocity and elevation change, we show that the transport of ~2 km3 of water beneath Thwaites Glacier has only a small and transient effect on glacier speed relative to ongoing thinning driven by ocean melt.
Felipe Napoleoni, Stewart S. R. Jamieson, Neil Ross, Michael J. Bentley, Andrés Rivera, Andrew M. Smith, Martin J. Siegert, Guy J. G. Paxman, Guisella Gacitúa, José A. Uribe, Rodrigo Zamora, Alex M. Brisbourne, and David G. Vaughan
The Cryosphere, 14, 4507–4524, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4507-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4507-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Subglacial water is important for ice sheet dynamics and stability. Despite this, there is a lack of detailed subglacial-water characterisation in West Antarctica (WA). We report 33 new subglacial lakes. Additionally, a new digital elevation model of basal topography was built and used to simulate the subglacial hydrological network in WA. The simulated subglacial hydrological catchments of Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers do not match precisely with their ice surface catchments.
Slawek M. Tulaczyk and Neil T. Foley
The Cryosphere, 14, 4495–4506, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4495-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4495-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Much of what we know about materials hidden beneath glaciers and ice sheets on Earth has been interpreted using radar reflection from the ice base. A common assumption is that electrical conductivity of the sub-ice materials does not influence the reflection strength and that the latter is controlled only by permittivity, which depends on the fraction of water in these materials. Here we argue that sub-ice electrical conductivity should be generally considered when interpreting radar records.
Andreas Alexander, Jaroslav Obu, Thomas V. Schuler, Andreas Kääb, and Hanne H. Christiansen
The Cryosphere, 14, 4217–4231, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4217-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4217-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we present subglacial air, ice and sediment temperatures from within the basal drainage systems of two cold-based glaciers on Svalbard during late spring and the summer melt season. We put the data into the context of air temperature and rainfall at the glacier surface and show the importance of surface events on the subglacial thermal regime and erosion around basal drainage channels. Observed vertical erosion rates thereby reachup to 0.9 m d−1.
Alex Burton-Johnson, Ricarda Dziadek, and Carlos Martin
The Cryosphere, 14, 3843–3873, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3843-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3843-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest source for sea level rise. However, one key control on ice sheet flow remains poorly constrained: the effect of heat from the rocks beneath the ice sheet (known as
geothermal heat flow). Although this may not seem like a lot of heat, beneath thick, slow ice this heat can control how well the ice flows and can lead to melting of the ice sheet. We discuss the methods used to estimate this heat, compile existing data, and recommend future research.
Ugo Nanni, Florent Gimbert, Christian Vincent, Dominik Gräff, Fabian Walter, Luc Piard, and Luc Moreau
The Cryosphere, 14, 1475–1496, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1475-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1475-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Our study addresses key questions on the subglacial drainage system physics through a novel observational approach that overcomes traditional limitations. We conducted, over 2 years, measurements of the subglacial water-flow-induced seismic noise and of glacier basal sliding speeds. We then inverted for the subglacial channel's hydraulic pressure gradient and hydraulic radius and investigated the links between the equilibrium state of subglacial channels and glacier basal sliding.
Silje Smith-Johnsen, Basile de Fleurian, Nicole Schlegel, Helene Seroussi, and Kerim Nisancioglu
The Cryosphere, 14, 841–854, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-841-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-841-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS) drains a large part of Greenland and displays fast flow far inland. However, the flow pattern is not well represented in ice sheet models. The fast flow has been explained by abnormally high geothermal heat flux. The heat melts the base of the ice sheet and the water produced may lubricate the bed and induce fast flow. By including high geothermal heat flux and a hydrology model, we successfully reproduce NEGIS flow pattern in an ice sheet model.
Fabian Lindner, Fabian Walter, Gabi Laske, and Florent Gimbert
The Cryosphere, 14, 287–308, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-287-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-287-2020, 2020
Michael A. Cooper, Thomas M. Jordan, Dustin M. Schroeder, Martin J. Siegert, Christopher N. Williams, and Jonathan L. Bamber
The Cryosphere, 13, 3093–3115, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3093-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3093-2019, 2019
Edyta Łokas, Agata Zaborska, Ireneusz Sobota, Paweł Gaca, J. Andrew Milton, Paweł Kocurek, and Anna Cwanek
The Cryosphere, 13, 2075–2086, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2075-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2075-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Cryoconite granules built of mineral particles, organic substances and living organisms significantly influence fluxes of energy and matter at glacier surfaces. They contribute to ice melting, give rise to an exceptional ecosystem, and effectively trap contaminants. This study evaluates contamination levels of radionuclides in cryoconite from Arctic glaciers and identifies sources of this contamination, proving that cryoconite is an excellent indicator of atmospheric contamination.
Robert D. Larter, Kelly A. Hogan, Claus-Dieter Hillenbrand, James A. Smith, Christine L. Batchelor, Matthieu Cartigny, Alex J. Tate, James D. Kirkham, Zoë A. Roseby, Gerhard Kuhn, Alastair G. C. Graham, and Julian A. Dowdeswell
The Cryosphere, 13, 1583–1596, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1583-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1583-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present high-resolution bathymetry data that provide the most complete and detailed imagery of any Antarctic palaeo-ice stream bed. These data show how subglacial water was delivered to and influenced the dynamic behaviour of the ice stream. Our observations provide insights relevant to understanding the behaviour of modern ice streams and forecasting the contributions that they will make to future sea level rise.
Benedict T. I. Reinardy, Adam D. Booth, Anna L. C. Hughes, Clare M. Boston, Henning Åkesson, Jostein Bakke, Atle Nesje, Rianne H. Giesen, and Danni M. Pearce
The Cryosphere, 13, 827–843, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-827-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-827-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Cold-ice processes may be widespread within temperate glacier systems but the role of cold-ice processes in temperate glacier systems is relatively unknown. Climate forcing is the main control on glacier mass balance but potential for heterogeneous thermal conditions at temperate glaciers calls for improved model assessments of future evolution of thermal conditions and impacts on glacier dynamics and mass balance. Cold-ice processes need to be included in temperate glacier land system models.
Joseph Graly, Joel Harrington, and Neil Humphrey
The Cryosphere, 11, 1131–1140, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1131-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1131-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
At a major outlet of the Greenland Ice Sheet in West Greenland, we find that the chemical solutes in the emerging subglacial waters are out of phase with water discharge and can spike in concentration during waning flow. This suggests that the subglacial waters are spreading out across a large area of the glacial bed throughout the day, stimulating chemical weathering beyond the major water distribution channels.
Benjamin E. Smith, Noel Gourmelen, Alexander Huth, and Ian Joughin
The Cryosphere, 11, 451–467, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-451-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-451-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we investigate elevation changes of Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica, one of the main sources of excess ice discharge into the ocean. We find that in early 2013, four subglacial lakes separated by 100 km drained suddenly, discharging more than 3 km3 of water under the fastest part of the glacier in less than 6 months. Concurrent ice-speed measurements show only minor changes, suggesting that ice dynamics are not strongly sensitive to changes in water flow.
Byeong-Hoon Kim, Choon-Ki Lee, Ki-Weon Seo, Won Sang Lee, and Ted Scambos
The Cryosphere, 10, 2971–2980, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2971-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2971-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Kamb Ice Stream (KIS) in Antarctica ceased rapid ice flow approximately 160 years ago, still influencing on the current mass balance of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. We identify two previously unknown subglacial lakes beneath the stagnated trunk of the KIS. Rapid fill-drain hydrologic events over several months indicate that the lakes are probably connected by a subglacial drainage network. Our findings support previously published conceptual models of the KIS shutdown.
Takahiro Abe, Masato Furuya, and Daiki Sakakibara
The Cryosphere, 10, 1427–1432, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1427-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1427-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We identified 12-year cyclic surging episodes at Donjek Glacier in Yukon, Canada. The surging area is limited within the ~20km section from the terminus, originating in an area where the flow width significantly narrows downstream. Our results suggest strong control of the valley constriction on the surge dynamics.
B. P. Lipovsky and E. M. Dunham
The Cryosphere, 10, 385–399, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-385-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-385-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Small repeating earthquakes occur at the ice-bed interface of the Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica. The earthquakes occur as rapidly as 20 earthquakes/s. We conduct numerical simulations of these earthquakes that include elastic and frictional forces as well as seismic wave propagation. We create synthetic seismograms and compare these synthetics to observed seismograms in order to constrain subglacial parameters. We comment on decadal-scale changes in these parameters.
A. Damsgaard, D. L. Egholm, J. A. Piotrowski, S. Tulaczyk, N. K. Larsen, and C. F. Brædstrup
The Cryosphere, 9, 2183–2200, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2183-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2183-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
This paper details a new algorithm for performing computational experiments of subglacial granular deformation. The numerical approach allows detailed studies of internal sediment and pore-water dynamics under shear. Feedbacks between sediment grains and pore water can cause rate-dependent strengthening, which additionally contributes to the plastic shear strength of the granular material. Hardening can stabilise patches of the subglacial beds with implications for landform development.
D. Callens, K. Matsuoka, D. Steinhage, B. Smith, E. Witrant, and F. Pattyn
The Cryosphere, 8, 867–875, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-867-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-867-2014, 2014
M. J. Siegert, N. Ross, H. Corr, B. Smith, T. Jordan, R. G. Bingham, F. Ferraccioli, D. M. Rippin, and A. Le Brocq
The Cryosphere, 8, 15–24, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-15-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-15-2014, 2014
S. Goeller, M. Thoma, K. Grosfeld, and H. Miller
The Cryosphere, 7, 1095–1106, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1095-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1095-2013, 2013
M. Thoma, K. Grosfeld, C. Mayer, A. M. Smith, J. Woodward, and N. Ross
The Cryosphere, 5, 561–567, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-561-2011, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-561-2011, 2011
M. Thoma, K. Grosfeld, C. Mayer, and F. Pattyn
The Cryosphere, 4, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-1-2010, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-1-2010, 2010
Cited articles
Alley, R. B.: Flow-law hypotheses for ice-sheet modeling, J. Glaciol., 38, 245–256, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JF000320, 1992.
Alley, R. B., Blankenship, D. D., Bentley, C. R., and Rooney, S: Till beneath ice stream B: 3. Till deformation: evidence and implications, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 8921–8929, https://doi.org/10.1029/JB092iB09p08921, 1987.
Aschwanden, A. and Blatter, H.: Meltwater production due to strain heating in Storglaciären, Sweden, J. Geophys. Res., 110, F04024, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JF000328, 2005.
Azuma, N.: A flow law for anisotropic ice and its application to ice sheets, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 128, 601–614, https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(94)90173-2, 1994.
Barnes, P. and Tabor, D.: Plastic flow and pressure melting in the deformation of ice I, Nature, 210, 878–882, https://doi.org/10.1038/210878a0, 1966.
Barnes, P., Tabor, D., and Walker, J. C. F.: The friction and creep of polycrystalline ice, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 324, 127–155, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1971.0132, 1971.
Bell, R. E., Tinto, K., Das, I., Wolovick, M., Chu, W., Creyts, T. T., Frearson, N., Abdi, A., and Paden, J. D.: Deformation, warming and softening of Greenland's ice by refreezing meltwater, Nature Geosci., 7, 497–502, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2179, 2014.
Björnsson, H., Gjessing, Y., Hamran, S. E., Hagen, J. O., Liestøl, O., Pálsson, F., and Erlingsson, B.: The thermal regime of sub-polar glaciers mapped by multi-frequency radio-echo sounding, J. Glaciol., 42, 23–32, https://doi.org/10.3198/1996JoG42-140-23-32, 1996.
Blatter, H. and Hutter, K.: Polythermal conditions in Arctic glaciers, J. Glaciol., 37, 261–269, https://doi.org/10.3198/1991JoG37-126-261-269, 1990.
Boulton, G. S. : Processes and patterns of glacial erosion, in: Glacial Geomorphology, edited by: Coates, D. R., Binghampton: University of New York, 41–87, 1974.
Bradwell, T.: Identifying palaeo-ice-stream tributaries on hard beds: Mapping glacial bedforms and erosion zones in NW Scotland, Geomorphology, 201, 397–414, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.040, 2013.
Bradwell, T., Stoker, M. S., and Krabbendam., M.: Megagrooves and streamlined bedrock in NW Scotland: the role of ice streams in landscape evolution, Geomorphology, 97, 135–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.040, 2008.
Budd, W. F., Keage, P. L., and Blundy, N. A.: Empirical studies of ice sliding, J. Glaciol., 23, 157–170, https://doi.org/10.3198/1979JoG23-89-157-170, 1979.
Byers, J., Cohen, D., and Iverson, N. R.: Subglacial clast/bed contact forces, J. Glaciol., 58, 89–98, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JoG11J126, 2012.
Calov, R. and Hutter, K: The thermomechanical response of the Greenland ice sheet to various climate scenarios, Clim. Dynam., 12, 243–260, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00219499, 1996.
Chandler, D., Hubbard, B., Hubbard, A., Murray, T., and Rippin, D.: Optimising ice flow law parameters using borehole deformation measurements and numerical modelling, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L12502, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033801, 2008.
Christianson, K., Peters, L. E., Alley, R. B., Anandakrishnan, S., Jacobel, R. W., Riverman, K. L., Muto, A., and Keisling, B. A.: Dilatant till facilitates ice-stream flow in northeast Greenland, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 401, 57–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.05.060, 2014.
Clarke, G. K., Nitsan, U., and Paterson, W. S. B.: Strain heating and creep instability in glaciers and ice sheets, Rev. Geophys., 15, 235–247, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG015i002p00235, 1977.
Cohen, D., Hooke, R. L., Iverson, N. R., and Kohler, J.: Sliding of ice past an obstacle at Engabreen, Norway, J. Glaciol., 46, 599–610, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756500781832747, 2000.
Cohen, D., Iverson, N. R., Hooyer, T. S., Fischer, U. H., Jackson, M., and Moore, P. L.: Debris-bed friction of hard-bedded glaciers, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth Surface, 110, F02007, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JF000228, 2005.
Colbeck, S. C. and Evans, R. J.: A flow law for temperate glacier ice, J. Glaciol., 12, 71–86, https://doi.org/10.3198/1973JoG12-64-71-86, 1973.
Cuffey, K. M. and Paterson, W. S. B.: The physics of glaciers, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2010.
Dahl-Jensen, D.: Steady thermomechanical flow along two-dimensional flow lines in large grounded ice sheets, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 10355–10362, https://doi.org/10.1029/JB094iB08p10355, 1989.
Dahl-Jensen, D. and Gundestrup, N. S.: Constitutive properties of ice at Dye 3, Greenland, in: The Physical Basis of Ice Sheet Modelling, edited by: Waddinton, E. D. and Walder, J., 170: IAHS Publications, 31–43, 1987.
Das, S. B., Joughin, I., Behn, M. D., Howat, I. M., King, M. A., Lizarralde, D., and Bhatia, M. P: Fracture propagation to the base of the Greenland ice sheet during supraglacial lake drainage, Science, 320, 778–781, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1153360, 2008.
De La Chapelle, S., Duval, P., and Baudelet, B.: Compressive creep of polycrystalline ice containing a liquid phase, 33, Scripta metallurgica et materialia, 33, 447–450, https://doi.org/10.1016/0956-716X(95)00207-C, 1995.
De La Chapelle, S., Milsch, H., Castelnau, O., and Duval, P.: Compressive creep of ice containing a liquid intergranular phase: Rate-controlling processes in the dislocation creep regime, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 251–254, https://doi.org/10.1029/1998GL900289, 1999.
Duval, P.: The role of the water content on the creep rate of polycrystalline ice, IAHS Publication, 118, 29–33, 1977.
Duval, P., Ashby, M. F., and Anderman, I.: Rate-controlling processes in the creep of polycrystalline ice, J. Phys. Chem., 87, 4066–4074, https://doi.org/10.1021/j100244a014, 1983.
Emerson, L. F. and Rempel, A. W.: Thresholds in the sliding resistance of simulated basal ice, The Cryosphere, 1, 11–19, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-1-11-2007, 2007.
Eyles, N.: Rock drumlins and megaflutes of the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada: a hard bed landform assemblage cut by the Saginaw–Huron Ice Stream, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 55, 34–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.09.001, 2012.
Eyles, N. and Putkinen, N.: Glacially-megalineated limestone terrain of Anticosti Island, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada; onset zone of the Laurentian Channel Ice Stream, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 88, 125–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.01.015, 2014.
Fahnestock, M., Abdalati, W., Joughin, I., Brozena, J., and Gogineni, P.: High geothermal heat flow, basal melt, and the origin of rapid ice flow in central Greenland, Science, 297, 2338–2342, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1065370, 2001.
Funk, M, Echelmeyer, K., and Iken, A: Mechanisms of fast flow in Jakobshavns Isbrae, West Greenland: Part II. Modeling of englacial temperatures, J. Glaciol., 40, 569–585, https://doi.org/10.3198/1994JoG40-136-569-585, 1994.
Glen, J. W.: The creep of polycrystalline ice, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 228, 519–538, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1955.0066, 1955.
Goldsby, D. L. and Kohlstedt, D. L.: Grain boundary sliding in fine-grained ice I, Scripta Materialia, 37, 1399–1406, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6462(97)00246-7, 1997.
Goldsby, D. L. and Kohlstedt, D. L.: Superplastic deformation of ice: Experimental observations, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 11017–11030, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900336, 2001.
Goldsby, D. L. and Kohlstedt, D. L.: Reply to comment by P. Duval and M. Montagnat on “Superplastic deformation of ice: Experimental observations”, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid Earth, 107, ECV 17-1–ECV 17-5, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JB000946, 2002.
Goldsby, D. L. and Swainson, I.: Development of C-axis fabrics during superplastic flow of ice, Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 86, 2005.
Greve, R.: Application of a polythermal three-dimensional ice sheet model to the Greenland ice sheet: response to steady-state and transient climate scenarios, J. Climate, 10, 901–918, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1997)010<0901:AOAPTD>2.0.CO;2, 1997.
Greve, R.: Relation of measured basal temperatures and the spatial distribution of the geothermal heat flux for the Greenland ice sheet, Ann. Glaciol., 42, 424–432, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756405781812510, 2005.
Gudmundsson, G. H. and Raymond, M.: On the limit to resolution and information on basal properties obtainable from surface data on ice streams, The Cryosphere, 2, 167–178, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2-167-2008, 2008.
Hallet, B: A theoretical model of glacial abrasion, J. Glaciol., 23, 39–50, https://doi.org/10.3198/1979JoG23-89-39-50, 1979.
Hindmarsh, R. C. A.: Deforming beds: viscous and plastic scales of deformation, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 16, 1039–1056, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(97)00035-8, 1997.
Hoffman, M. J., Catania, G. A., Neumann, T. A., Andrews, L. C., and Rumrill, J. A.: Links between acceleration, melting, and supraglacial lake drainage of the western Greenland Ice Sheet, J. Geophys. Res., 116, F04035, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JF001934, 2011.
Hooke, R. L.: Flow law for polycrystalline ice in glaciers' comparison of theoretical predictions, laboratory data, and field, Rev. Geophys., 19, 664–672, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG019i004p00664, 1981.
Iken, A., Echelmeyer, K., Harrions, W., and Funk, M.: Mechanisms of fast flow in Jakobshavns Isbrae, West Greenland: Part I. Measurements of temperature and water level in deep boreholes, J. Glaciol., 39, 15–25, https://doi.org/10.3198/1993JoG39-131-15-25, 1993.
Iverson, N. R., Cohen, D., Hooyer, T. S., Fischer, U. H., Jackson, M., Moore, P. L., Lappegard, G., and Kohler, J.: Effects of basal debris on glacier flow, Science, 301, 81–84, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1083086, 2003.
Joughin, I., Fahnestock, M., MacAyeal, D., Bamber, J. L., and Gogineni, P.: Observation and analysis of ice flow in the largest Greenland ice stream, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 34021–34034, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD900087, 2001.
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., Howat, I. M., Scambos, T., and Moon, T.: Greenland flow variability from ice-sheet-wide velocity mapping, J. Glaciol., 56, 415–430, 2010.
Kamb, B.: Sliding motion of glaciers: theory and observation, Rev. Geophys., 8, 673–728, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG008i004p00673, 1970.
Kamb, B. and LaChapelle, E. : Direct observation of the mechanism of glacier sliding over bedrock, J. Glaciol., 5, 159–172, 1964.
King, E. C.: Flow dynamics of the Rutford Ice Stream ice-drainage basin, West Antarctica, from radar stratigraphy Ann. Glaciol., 50, 42–48, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756409789097586, 2009.
Kleman, J., Stroeven, A. P., and Lundqvist, J.: Patterns of Quaternary ice sheet erosion and deposition in Fennoscandia and a theoretical framework for explanation, Geomorphology, 97, 73–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.049, 2008.
Krabbendam, M. and Bradwell, T.: Quaternary evolution of glaciated gneiss terrains: pre-glacial weathering vs. glacial erosion, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 95, 20–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.013, 2014.
Krabbendam, M., Eyles, N., Putkinen, N., Bradwell, T., and Arbeleaz-Moreno, L.: Streamlined hard beds formed by palaeo-ice streams: A review, Sediment. Geol., 338, 24–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.12.007, 2016.
Lile, R. C.: The effect of anisotropy on the creep of polycrystalline ice, J. Glaciol., 21, 475–483, https://doi.org/10.3198/1978JoG21-85-475-483, 1978.
Lliboutry, L.: Permeability, brine content and temperature of temperate ice, J. Glaciol., 10, 15–29, https://doi.org/10.3198/1971JoG10-58-15-29, 1971.
Lliboutry, L.: Internal melting and ice accretion at the bottom of temperate glaciers, J. Glaciol., 39, 50–64, https://doi.org/10.3198/1993JoG39-131-50-64, 1993.
Lovell, H., Fleming, E. J., Benn, D. I., Hubbard, B., Lukas, S., Rea, B. R., Noormets, R., and Flink, A. E.: Debris entrainment and landform genesis during tidewater glacier surges., J. Geophys. Res.-Earth Surf., 120, 1574–1595, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003509, 2015.
Lüthi, M., Funk, M., Iken, A., Gogineni, S., and Truffer, M.: Mechanisms of fast flow in Jakobshavn Isbrae, West Greenland: Part III. Measurements of ice deformation, temperature and cross-borehole conductivity in boreholes to the bedrock, J. Glaciol., 48, 369–385, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756502781831322, 2002.
Macayeal, D. R., Bindschadler, R. A., and Scambos, T. A. : Basal friction of ice stream E, West Antarctica, J. Glaciol., 41, 247–262, https://doi.org/10.3198/1995JoG41-138-247-262, 1995.
Mader, H. M.: Observations of the water-vein system in polycrystalline ice, J. Glaciol., 38, 333–347, https://doi.org/10.3198/1992JoG38-130-333-347, 1992.
Margold, M., Stokes, C. R., and Clark, C. D.: Ice streams in the Laurentide Ice Sheet: Identification, characteristics and comparison to modern ice sheets, Earth-Sci. Rev., 143, 117–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.01.011, 2015.
Marshall, S. J.: Recent advances in understanding ice sheet dynamics, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 240, 191–204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2005.08.016, 2005.
Marshall, H. P., Harper, J. T., Pfeffer, W. T., and Humphrey, N. F.: Depth-varying constitutive properties observed in an isothermal glacier, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 2146, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL015412, 2002.
McClay, K. R.: Pressure solution and Coble creep in rocks and minerals; a review, J. Geol. Soc. London, 134, 57–70, https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.134.1.0057, 1977.
Morgan, V. I.: High-temperature ice creep tests, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 19, 295–300, https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-232X(91)90044-H, 1991.
Murray, T., Stuart, G. W., Miller, P. J., Woodward, J., Smith, A. M., Porter, P. R., and Jiskoot, H.: Glacier surge propagation by thermal evolution at the bed, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 13491–13507, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900066, 2000.
Murray, T., Booth, A., and Rippin, D. M.: Water-content of glacier-ice: limitations on estimates from velocity analysis of surface ground-penetrating radar surveys, J. Environ. Eng. Geophys., 12, 87–99, https://doi.org/10.2113/JEEG12.1.87, 2007.
Nye, J. F.: Glacier sliding without cavitation in a linear viscous approximation, Proc. Roy. Soc.f London, A315, 381–403, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1970.0050, 1970.
Nye, J. F. and Frank, F. C.: Hydrology of the intergranular veins in a temperate glacier, Symposium on the Hydrology of Glaciers, 95: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 157–161, 1973.
Parizek, B. R. and Alley, R. B.: Implications of increased Greenland surface melt under global-warming scenarios: ice-sheet simulations, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 23, 1013–1027, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.12.024, 2004.
Paterson, W. S. B.: Why ice-age ice is sometimes “soft”, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 20, 75–98, https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-232X(91)90058-O, 1991.
Paterson, W. S. B.: The physics of glaciers, Pergamon, Oxford, 1994.
Payne, A. and Dongelmans, P. W.: Self-organization in the thermomechanical flow of ice sheets, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 12219–12233, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JB00513, 1997.
Peltier, R. W., Goldsby, D. L., Kohlstedt, D. L., and Tarasov, L.: Ice-age ice-sheet rheology: constraints from the Last Glacial Maximum from of the Laurentide ice sheet, Ann. Glaciol., 30, 163–176, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756400781820859, 2000.
Pharr, G. M. and Ashby, M. F.: On creep enhanced by a liquid phase, Acta Metallurgica, 31, 129–138, https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160(83)90072-X, 1983.
Phillips, T., Rajaram, H., and Steffen, K.: Cryo-hydrologic warming: A potential mechanism for rapid thermal response of ice sheets, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L20503, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044397, 2010.
Poirier, J. P.: Creep of crystals: high-temperature deformation processes in metals, ceramics and minerals, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985.
Raj, R.: Creep in polycrystalline aggregates by matter transport through a liquid phase, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid Earth, 87, 4731–4739, https://doi.org/10.1029/JB087iB06p04731, 1982.
Rippin, D. M.: Bed roughness beneath the Greenland ice sheet, J. Glaciol., 59, 724–732, https://doi.org/10.3189/2013JoG12J212, 2013.
Roberts, D. H. and Long, A. J.: Streamlined bedrock terrain and fast ice flow, Jakobshavns Isbrae, West Greenland; implications for ice stream and ice sheet dynamics, Boreas, 34, 25–42, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.2005.tb01002.x, 2005.
Rutter, E. H.: Pressure solution in nature, theory and experiment, J. Geol. Soc. London, 140, 725–740, https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.140.5.0725, 1983.
Ryser, C., Lüthi, M. P., Andrews, L. C., Hoffman, M. J., Catania, G. A., Hawley, R. L., Neumann, T. A., and Kristensen, S. S.: Sustained high basal motion of the Greenland ice sheet revealed by borehole deformation, J. Glaciol., 60, 647–160, https://doi.org/10.3189/2014JoG13J196, 2014.
Schoof, C.: The effect of cavitation on glacier sliding., Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Phys. Eng. Sci., 461, 609–627, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2004.1350, 2005.
Shannon, S. R., Payne, A. J., Bartholomew, I. D., van den Broeke, M. R., Edwards, T. L., Fettweis, X., Gagliardini, O., Gillet-Chaulet, F., Goelzer, H., Hoffman, M. J., and Huybrechts, P.: Enhanced basal lubrication and the contribution of the Greenland ice sheet to future sea-level rise, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 110, 14156–14161, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212647110, 2013.
Shepherd, A., Hubbard, A., Nienow, P., King, M., McMillan, M., and Joughin, I.: Greenland ice sheet motion coupled with daily melting in late summer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L015001, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035758, 2009.
Smith, H. T. U.: Giant glacial grooves in northwest Canada, Am. J. Sci., 246, 503–514, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.246.8.503, 1948.
Stokes, C. R. and Clark, C. D.: Geomorphological criteria for identifying Pleistocene ice streams, Ann. Glaciol., 28, 67–74, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756499781821625, 1999.
Stokes, C. R. and Clark, C. D.: Laurentide ice streaming on the Canadian Shield: A conflict with the soft-bedded ice stream paradigm?, Geology, 31, 347–350, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0347:LISOTC>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Tedesco, M., Lüthje, M., Steffen, K., Steiner, N., Fettweis, X., Willis, I., Bayou, N., and Banwell, A.: Measurement and modeling of ablation of the bottom of supraglacial lakes in western Greenland, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L02502, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049882, 2012.
Tison, J. L. and Hubbard, B.: Ice crystallographic evolution at a temperate glacier: Glacier de Tsanfleuron, Switzerland, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 176, 23–38, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.176.01.03, 2000.
Vallon, M., Petit, J. R., and Fabre, B.: Study of an ice core to the bedrock in the accumulation zone of an alpine glacier, J. Glaciol., 17, 13–28, 1976.
Weertman, J.: On the sliding of glaciers, J. Glaciol., 3, 33–38, https://doi.org/10.3198/1957JoG3-21-33-38, 1957.
Weertman, J. and Birchfield, G. E.: Stability of sheet water flow under a glacier, J. Glaciol., 29, 374–382, https://doi.org/10.3198/1983JoG29-103-374-382, 1983.
Wilson, C. J. L.: Deformation induced recrystallization of ice: the application of in situ experiments, edited by: Schmid, S. M. and Casey, M., Mineral and Rock Deformation: Laboratory Studies: The Paterson Volume: American Geophysical Union, 213–232, 1986.
Wilson, C. J. L., Zhang, Y., and Stüwe, K.: The effects of localized deformation on melting processes in ice, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 24, 177–189, https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-232X(95)00024-6, 1996.
Winsborrow, M. C., Clark, C. D., and Stokes, C. R.: What controls the location of ice streams?, Earth-Sci. Rev., 103, 45–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.003, 2010.
Zoet, L. K., Carpenter, B., Scuderi, M., Alley, R. B., Anandakrishnan, S., Marone, C., and Jackson, M.: The effects of entrained debris on the basal sliding stability of a glacier, J. Geophys. Res., 118, 656–666, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrf.20052, 2013.
Short summary
The way that ice moves over rough ground at the base of an ice sheet is important to understand and predict the behaviour of ice sheets. Here, I argue that if basal ice is at the melting temperature, as is locally the case below the Greenland Ice Sheet, this basal motion is easier and faster than hitherto thought. A thick (tens of metres) layer of ice at the melting temperature may better explain some ice streams and needs to be taken into account when modelling future ice sheet behaviour.
The way that ice moves over rough ground at the base of an ice sheet is important to understand...
