Articles | Volume 16, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-505-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-505-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
11 Feb 2022
Research article |
| 11 Feb 2022
| 11 Feb 2022
GNSS signal-based snow water equivalent determination for different snowpack conditions along a steep elevation gradient
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, USA
Institute for Hydrology and Water Management, BOKU University of
Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
Patrick Henkel
ANavS GmbH, Munich, Germany
Markus Lamm
ANavS GmbH, Munich, Germany
Florian Appel
VISTA Remote Sensing in Geosciences GmbH, Munich, Germany
Christoph Marty
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
Jürg Schweizer
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
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This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Hydrology and Earth System Sciences (HESS).
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We developed a literature-based approach for projecting future snow depths, which was applied to four measurement stations in Switzerland under a +2 °C temperature scenario, revealing significant declines in snow depths. Validation against published data shows that the approach captures key trends in snow loss. This resource-efficient method provides a practical tool for estimating climate change related snow depth declines, which are lacking highly resolved climate projections.
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The Cryosphere, 18, 6005–6026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-6005-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-6005-2024, 2024
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Snow depth plays an important role in water resources, mountain tourism, and hazard management across the European Alps. Our study uses station-based historical observations to quantify how changes in temperature and precipitation affect average seasonal snow depth. We find that the relationship between these variables has been surprisingly robust over the last 120 years. This allows us to more accurately estimate how future climate will affect seasonal snow depth in different elevation zones.
Stephanie Mayer, Martin Hendrick, Adrien Michel, Bettina Richter, Jürg Schweizer, Heini Wernli, and Alec van Herwijnen
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Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3387–3400, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3387-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3387-2024, 2024
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Glide-snow avalanches release at the ground–snow interface, and their release process is poorly understood. To investigate the influence of spatial variability (snowpack and basal friction) on avalanche release, we developed a 3D, mechanical, threshold-based model that reproduces an observed release area distribution. A sensitivity analysis showed that the distribution was mostly influenced by the basal friction uniformity, while the variations in snowpack properties had little influence.
Stephanie Mayer, Frank Techel, Jürg Schweizer, and Alec van Herwijnen
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We present statistical models to estimate the probability for natural dry-snow avalanche release and avalanche size based on the simulated layering of the snowpack. The benefit of these models is demonstrated in comparison with benchmark models based on the amount of new snow. From the validation with data sets of quality-controlled avalanche observations and danger levels, we conclude that these models may be valuable tools to support forecasting natural dry-snow avalanche activity.
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Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 4063–4081, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-4063-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-4063-2023, 2023
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Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 293–315, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-293-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-293-2023, 2023
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Information on snow instability is crucial for avalanche forecasting. We introduce a novel machine-learning-based method to assess snow instability from snow stratigraphy simulated with the snow cover model SNOWPACK. To develop the model, we compared observed and simulated snow profiles. Our model provides a probability of instability for every layer of a simulated snow profile, which allows detection of the weakest layer and assessment of its degree of instability with one single index.
Cristina Pérez-Guillén, Frank Techel, Martin Hendrick, Michele Volpi, Alec van Herwijnen, Tasko Olevski, Guillaume Obozinski, Fernando Pérez-Cruz, and Jürg Schweizer
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A fully data-driven approach to predicting the danger level for dry-snow avalanche conditions in Switzerland was developed. Two classifiers were trained using a large database of meteorological data, snow cover simulations, and danger levels. The models performed well throughout the Swiss Alps, reaching a performance similar to the current experience-based avalanche forecasts. This approach shows the potential to be a valuable supplementary decision support tool for assessing avalanche hazard.
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Yves Bühler, Peter Bebi, Marc Christen, Stefan Margreth, Lukas Stoffel, Andreas Stoffel, Christoph Marty, Gregor Schmucki, Andrin Caviezel, Roderick Kühne, Stephan Wohlwend, and Perry Bartelt
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Johannes Aschauer and Christoph Marty
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Methods for reconstruction of winter long data gaps in snow depth time series are compared. The methods use snow depth data from neighboring stations or calculate snow depth from temperature and precipitation data. All methods except one are able to reproduce the average snow depth and maximum snow depth in a winter reasonably well. For reconstructing the number of snow days with snow depth ≥ 1 cm, results suggest using a snow model instead of relying on data from neighboring stations.
Moritz Buchmann, Michael Begert, Stefan Brönnimann, and Christoph Marty
The Cryosphere, 15, 4625–4636, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4625-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4625-2021, 2021
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Christian Voigt, Karsten Schulz, Franziska Koch, Karl-Friedrich Wetzel, Ludger Timmen, Till Rehm, Hartmut Pflug, Nico Stolarczuk, Christoph Förste, and Frank Flechtner
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5047–5064, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5047-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5047-2021, 2021
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A continuously operating superconducting gravimeter at the Zugspitze summit is introduced to support hydrological studies of the Partnach spring catchment known as the Zugspitze research catchment. The observed gravity residuals reflect total water storage variations at the observation site. Hydro-gravimetric analysis show a high correlation between gravity and the snow water equivalent, with a gravimetric footprint of up to 4 km radius enabling integral insights into this high alpine catchment.
Pirmin Philipp Ebner, Franziska Koch, Valentina Premier, Carlo Marin, Florian Hanzer, Carlo Maria Carmagnola, Hugues François, Daniel Günther, Fabiano Monti, Olivier Hargoaa, Ulrich Strasser, Samuel Morin, and Michael Lehning
The Cryosphere, 15, 3949–3973, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3949-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3949-2021, 2021
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A service to enable real-time optimization of grooming and snow-making at ski resorts was developed and evaluated using both GNSS-measured snow depth and spaceborne snow maps derived from Copernicus Sentinel-2. The correlation to the ground observation data was high. Potential sources for the overestimation of the snow depth by the simulations are mainly the impact of snow redistribution by skiers, compensation of uneven terrain, or spontaneous local adaptions of the snow management.
Bastian Bergfeld, Alec van Herwijnen, Benjamin Reuter, Grégoire Bobillier, Jürg Dual, and Jürg Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 15, 3539–3553, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3539-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3539-2021, 2021
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The modern picture of the snow slab avalanche release process involves a
dynamic crack propagation phasein which a whole slope becomes detached. The present work contains the first field methodology which provides the temporal and spatial resolution necessary to study this phase. We demonstrate the versatile capabilities and accuracy of our method by revealing intricate dynamics and present how to determine relevant characteristics of crack propagation such as crack speed.
Jürg Schweizer, Christoph Mitterer, Benjamin Reuter, and Frank Techel
The Cryosphere, 15, 3293–3315, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3293-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3293-2021, 2021
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Snow avalanches threaten people and infrastructure in snow-covered mountain regions. To mitigate the effects of avalanches, warnings are issued by public forecasting services. Presently, the five danger levels are described in qualitative terms. We aim to characterize the avalanche danger levels based on expert field observations of snow instability. Our findings contribute to an evidence-based description of danger levels and to improve consistency and accuracy of avalanche forecasts.
Michael Weber, Franziska Koch, Matthias Bernhardt, and Karsten Schulz
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 2869–2894, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-2869-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-2869-2021, 2021
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We compared a suite of globally available meteorological and DEM data with in situ data for physically based snow hydrological modelling in a small high-alpine catchment. Although global meteorological data were less suited to describe the snowpack properly, transferred station data from a similar location in the vicinity and substituting single variables with global products performed well. In addition, using 30 m global DEM products as model input was useful in such complex terrain.
Michael Matiu, Alice Crespi, Giacomo Bertoldi, Carlo Maria Carmagnola, Christoph Marty, Samuel Morin, Wolfgang Schöner, Daniele Cat Berro, Gabriele Chiogna, Ludovica De Gregorio, Sven Kotlarski, Bruno Majone, Gernot Resch, Silvia Terzago, Mauro Valt, Walter Beozzo, Paola Cianfarra, Isabelle Gouttevin, Giorgia Marcolini, Claudia Notarnicola, Marcello Petitta, Simon C. Scherrer, Ulrich Strasser, Michael Winkler, Marc Zebisch, Andrea Cicogna, Roberto Cremonini, Andrea Debernardi, Mattia Faletto, Mauro Gaddo, Lorenzo Giovannini, Luca Mercalli, Jean-Michel Soubeyroux, Andrea Sušnik, Alberto Trenti, Stefano Urbani, and Viktor Weilguni
The Cryosphere, 15, 1343–1382, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1343-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1343-2021, 2021
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The first Alpine-wide assessment of station snow depth has been enabled by a collaborative effort of the research community which involves more than 30 partners, 6 countries, and more than 2000 stations. It shows how snow in the European Alps matches the climatic zones and gives a robust estimate of observed changes: stronger decreases in the snow season at low elevations and in spring at all elevations, however, with considerable regional differences.
Richard Essery, Hyungjun Kim, Libo Wang, Paul Bartlett, Aaron Boone, Claire Brutel-Vuilmet, Eleanor Burke, Matthias Cuntz, Bertrand Decharme, Emanuel Dutra, Xing Fang, Yeugeniy Gusev, Stefan Hagemann, Vanessa Haverd, Anna Kontu, Gerhard Krinner, Matthieu Lafaysse, Yves Lejeune, Thomas Marke, Danny Marks, Christoph Marty, Cecile B. Menard, Olga Nasonova, Tomoko Nitta, John Pomeroy, Gerd Schädler, Vladimir Semenov, Tatiana Smirnova, Sean Swenson, Dmitry Turkov, Nander Wever, and Hua Yuan
The Cryosphere, 14, 4687–4698, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4687-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4687-2020, 2020
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Climate models are uncertain in predicting how warming changes snow cover. This paper compares 22 snow models with the same meteorological inputs. Predicted trends agree with observations at four snow research sites: winter snow cover does not start later, but snow now melts earlier in spring than in the 1980s at two of the sites. Cold regions where snow can last until late summer are predicted to be particularly sensitive to warming because the snow then melts faster at warmer times of year.
Bettina Richter, Alec van Herwijnen, Mathias W. Rotach, and Jürg Schweizer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 2873–2888, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2873-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2873-2020, 2020
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We investigated the sensitivity of modeled snow instability to uncertainties in meteorological input, typically found in complex terrain. The formation of the weak layer was very robust due to the long dry period, indicated by a widespread avalanche problem. Once a weak layer has formed, precipitation mostly determined slab and weak layer properties and hence snow instability. When spatially assessing snow instability for avalanche forecasting, accurate precipitation patterns have to be known.
Frank Techel, Karsten Müller, and Jürg Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 14, 3503–3521, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3503-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3503-2020, 2020
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Exploring a large data set of snow stability tests and avalanche observations, we quantitatively describe the three key elements that characterize avalanche danger: snowpack stability, the frequency distribution of snowpack stability, and avalanche size. The findings will aid in refining the definitions of the avalanche danger scale and in fostering its consistent usage.
Frank Techel, Kurt Winkler, Matthias Walcher, Alec van Herwijnen, and Jürg Schweizer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 1941–1953, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1941-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1941-2020, 2020
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Snow instability tests, like the extended column test (ECT), provide valuable information regarding point snow instability. A large data set of ECT – together with information on slope instability – was explored. The findings clearly show that combining information regarding propagation propensity and fracture initiation provided the best correlation with slope instability. A new four-class stability interpretation scheme is proposed for ECT results.
Jürg Schweizer, Christoph Mitterer, Frank Techel, Andreas Stoffel, and Benjamin Reuter
The Cryosphere, 14, 737–750, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-737-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-737-2020, 2020
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Snow avalanches represent a major natural hazard in seasonally snow-covered mountain regions around the world. To avoid periods and locations of high hazard, avalanche warnings are issued by public authorities. In these bulletins, the hazard is characterized by a danger level. Since the danger levels are not well defined, we analyzed a large data set of avalanches to improve the description. Our findings show discrepancies in present usage of the danger scale and show ways to improve the scale.
Grégoire Bobillier, Bastian Bergfeld, Achille Capelli, Jürg Dual, Johan Gaume, Alec van Herwijnen, and Jürg Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 14, 39–49, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-39-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-39-2020, 2020
Bettina Richter, Jürg Schweizer, Mathias W. Rotach, and Alec van Herwijnen
The Cryosphere, 13, 3353–3366, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3353-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3353-2019, 2019
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Information on snow stability is important for avalanche forecasting. To improve the stability estimation in the snow cover model SNOWPACK, we suggested an improved parameterization for the critical crack length. We compared 3 years of field data to SNOWPACK simulations. The match between observed and modeled critical crack lengths greatly improved, and critical weak layers appear more prominently in the modeled vertical profile of critical crack length.
Matthias Heck, Alec van Herwijnen, Conny Hammer, Manuel Hobiger, Jürg Schweizer, and Donat Fäh
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 491–503, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-491-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-491-2019, 2019
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We used continuous seismic data from two small aperture geophone arrays deployed in the region above Davos in the eastern Swiss Alps to develop a machine learning workflow to automatically identify signals generated by snow avalanches. Our results suggest that the method presented could be used to identify major avalanche periods and highlight the importance of array processing techniques for the automatic classification of avalanches in seismic data.
Kay Helfricht, Lea Hartl, Roland Koch, Christoph Marty, and Marc Olefs
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2655–2668, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2655-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2655-2018, 2018
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We calculated hourly new snow densities from automated measurements. This time interval reduces the influence of settling of the freshly deposited snow. We found an average new snow density of 68 kg m−3. The observed variability could not be described using different parameterizations, but a relationship to temperature is partly visible at hourly intervals. Wind speed is a crucial parameter for the inter-station variability. Our findings are relevant for snow models working on hourly timescales.
Martin Beniston, Daniel Farinotti, Markus Stoffel, Liss M. Andreassen, Erika Coppola, Nicolas Eckert, Adriano Fantini, Florie Giacona, Christian Hauck, Matthias Huss, Hendrik Huwald, Michael Lehning, Juan-Ignacio López-Moreno, Jan Magnusson, Christoph Marty, Enrique Morán-Tejéda, Samuel Morin, Mohamed Naaim, Antonello Provenzale, Antoine Rabatel, Delphine Six, Johann Stötter, Ulrich Strasser, Silvia Terzago, and Christian Vincent
The Cryosphere, 12, 759–794, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-759-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-759-2018, 2018
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This paper makes a rather exhaustive overview of current knowledge of past, current, and future aspects of cryospheric issues in continental Europe and makes a number of reflections of areas of uncertainty requiring more attention in both scientific and policy terms. The review paper is completed by a bibliography containing 350 recent references that will certainly be of value to scholars engaged in the fields of glacier, snow, and permafrost research.
Matthias Heck, Conny Hammer, Alec van Herwijnen, Jürg Schweizer, and Donat Fäh
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 383–396, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-383-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-383-2018, 2018
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In this study we use hidden Markov models, a machine learning algorithm to automatically identify avalanche events in a continuous seismic data set recorded during the winter 2010. With additional post processing steps, we detected around 70 avalanche events. Although not every detection could be confirmed as an avalanche, we clearly identified the two main avalanche periods of the winter season 2010 in our classification results.
Christoph Marty, Sebastian Schlögl, Mathias Bavay, and Michael Lehning
The Cryosphere, 11, 517–529, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-517-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-517-2017, 2017
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We simulate the future snow cover in the Alps with the help of a snow model, which is fed by projected temperature and precipitation changes from a large set of climate models. The results demonstrate that snow below 1000 m is probably a rare guest at the end of the century. Moreover, even above 3000 m the simulations show a drastic decrease in snow depth. However, the results reveal that the projected snow cover reduction can be mitigated by 50 % if we manage to keep global warming below 2°.
Johan Gaume, Alec van Herwijnen, Guillaume Chambon, Nander Wever, and Jürg Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 11, 217–228, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-217-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-217-2017, 2017
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Based on DEM simulations we developed a new model for the onset of crack propagation in snow slab avalanche release. The model reconciles past approaches by considering the complex interplay between slab elasticity and the mechanical behavior of the weak layer including its structural collapse. The model agrees with extensive field data and can reproduce crack propagation on low-angle terrain and the decrease in critical crack length with increasing slope angle observed in numerical experiments.
Jürg Schweizer, Benjamin Reuter, Alec van Herwijnen, Bettina Richter, and Johan Gaume
The Cryosphere, 10, 2637–2653, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2637-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2637-2016, 2016
Fabiano Monti, Johan Gaume, Alec van Herwijnen, and Jürg Schweizer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 775–788, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-775-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-775-2016, 2016
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We propose a new approach based on a simplification of the multi-layered elasticity theory in order to easily compute the additional stress due to a skier at the depth of the weak layer, taking into account the layering of the snow slab and the substratum. The method was tested on simplified snow profiles, then on manually observed snow profiles including a stability test and, finally, on simulated snow profiles, thereby showing the promise of our approach.
J. Gaume, A. van Herwijnen, G. Chambon, K. W. Birkeland, and J. Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 9, 1915–1932, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1915-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1915-2015, 2015
Short summary
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We proposed a new approach to characterize the dynamic phase of crack propagation in weak snowpack layers as well as fracture arrest propensity by means of numerical "propagation saw test" simulations based on the discrete element method. Crack propagation speed and distance before fracture arrest were derived from the simulations for different snowpack configurations and mechanical properties. Numerical and experimental results were compared and the mechanical processes at play were discussed.
B. Reuter, J. Schweizer, and A. van Herwijnen
The Cryosphere, 9, 837–847, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-837-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-837-2015, 2015
Short summary
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We present a novel approach to estimate point snow instability based on snow mechanical properties from snow micro-penetrometer measurements. This is the first approach that takes into account the essential processes involved in dry-snow slab avalanche release: failure initiation and crack propagation. Comparison with field observations confirms that the two-step calculation of a stability criterion and a critical crack length is suited to describe point snow instability.
J. Gaume, G. Chambon, N. Eckert, M. Naaim, and J. Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 9, 795–804, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-795-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-795-2015, 2015
Short summary
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Slab tensile failure propensity is examined using a mechanical--statistical model of the slab–-weak layer (WL) system based on the finite element method. This model accounts for WL heterogeneity, stress redistribution by elasticity of the slab and the slab possible tensile failure. For realistic values of the parameters, the tensile failure propensity is mainly driven by slab properties. Hard and thick snow slabs are more prone to wide–scale crack propagation and thus lead to larger avalanches.
J. Schweizer and B. Reuter
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 109–118, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-15-109-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-15-109-2015, 2015
I. Reiweger and J. Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 7, 1447–1453, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1447-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1447-2013, 2013
C. Mitterer and J. Schweizer
The Cryosphere, 7, 205–216, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-205-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-205-2013, 2013
Related subject area
Discipline: Snow | Subject: Instrumentation
Assessment of continuous flow analysis (CFA) for high-precision profiles of water isotopes in snow cores
Understanding biases in ICESat-2 data due to subsurface scattering using Airborne Topographic Mapper waveform data
A low-cost, autonomous system for distributed snow depth measurements on sea ice
Measuring prairie snow water equivalent with combined UAV-borne gamma spectrometry and lidar
Brief communication: Testing a portable Bullard-type temperature lance confirms highly spatially heterogeneous sediment temperatures under shallow bodies of water in the Arctic
A random forest approach to quality-checking automatic snow-depth sensor measurements
Brief communication: Comparison of in situ ephemeral snow depth measurements over a mixed-use temperate forest landscape
Monitoring snow water equivalent using the phase of RFID signals
Mapping snow depth on Canadian sub-arctic lakes using ground-penetrating radar
Comparison of manual snow water equivalent (SWE) measurements: seeking the reference for a true SWE value in a boreal biome
Brief communication: Application of a muonic cosmic ray snow gauge to monitor the snow water equivalent on alpine glaciers
Snow water equivalent measurement in the Arctic based on cosmic ray neutron attenuation
Review article: Performance assessment of radiation-based field sensors for monitoring the water equivalent of snow cover (SWE)
Spectral albedo measurements over snow-covered slopes: theory and slope effect corrections
Continuous and autonomous snow water equivalent measurements by a cosmic ray sensor on an alpine glacier
Monitoring of snow surface near-infrared bidirectional reflectance factors with added light-absorbing particles
An assessment of sub-snow GPS for quantification of snow water equivalent
Rémi Dallmayr, Hannah Meyer, Vasileios Gkinis, Thomas Laepple, Melanie Behrens, Frank Wilhelms, and Maria Hörhold
The Cryosphere, 19, 1067–1083, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1067-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1067-2025, 2025
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Recent studies showed that a large number of independent vertical profiles allow for inferring a common local climate signal from the stacked stable water isotope record. Through investigating instrumental limitation and the effect of percolation of such porous samples, this study assesses the continuous flow analysis (CFA) technique in order to analyze the significant number of snow surface profiles within a reasonable time and with high quality.
Benjamin E. Smith, Michael Studinger, Tyler Sutterley, Zachary Fair, and Thomas Neumann
The Cryosphere, 19, 975–995, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-975-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-975-2025, 2025
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This study investigates errors (biases) that may result when green lasers are used to measure the elevation of glaciers and ice sheets. These biases are important because if the snow or ice on top of the ice sheet changes, it can make the elevation of the ice appear to change by the wrong amount. We measure these biases over the Greenland Ice Sheet with a laser system on an airplane and explore how the use of satellite data can let us correct for the biases.
Ian A. Raphael, Donald K. Perovich, Christopher M. Polashenski, and Robert L. Hawley
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-187, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-187, 2025
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Snow plays competing roles in the sea ice cycle by reflecting sunlight during summer (reducing melt) and insulating the ice from the cold atmosphere during winter (reducing growth). Observing where, when, and how much snow accumulates on sea ice is thus central to understanding the Arctic. Here, we describe a new snow depth observation system that is substantially cheaper and lighter than existing tools, and present a study demonstrating its potential to improve snow measurements on sea ice.
Phillip Harder, Warren D. Helgason, and John W. Pomeroy
The Cryosphere, 18, 3277–3295, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3277-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3277-2024, 2024
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Remote sensing the amount of water in snow (SWE) at high spatial resolutions is an unresolved challenge. In this work, we tested a drone-mounted passive gamma spectrometer to quantify SWE. We found that the gamma observations could resolve the average and spatial variability of SWE down to 22.5 m resolutions. Further, by combining drone gamma SWE and lidar snow depth we could estimate SWE at sub-metre resolutions which is a new opportunity to improve the measurement of shallow snowpacks.
Frederieke Miesner, William Lambert Cable, Pier Paul Overduin, and Julia Boike
The Cryosphere, 18, 2603–2611, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2603-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2603-2024, 2024
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The temperature in the sediment below Arctic lakes determines the stability of the permafrost and microbial activity. However, measurements are scarce because of the remoteness. We present a robust and portable device to fill this gap. Test campaigns have demonstrated its utility in a range of environments during winter and summer. The measured temperatures show a great variability within and across locations. The data can be used to validate models and estimate potential emissions.
Giulia Blandini, Francesco Avanzi, Simone Gabellani, Denise Ponziani, Hervé Stevenin, Sara Ratto, Luca Ferraris, and Alberto Viglione
The Cryosphere, 17, 5317–5333, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5317-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5317-2023, 2023
Short summary
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Automatic snow depth data are a valuable source of information for hydrologists, but they also tend to be noisy. To maximize the value of these measurements for real-world applications, we developed an automatic procedure to differentiate snow cover from grass or bare ground data, as well as to detect random errors. This procedure can enhance snow data quality, thus providing more reliable data for snow models.
Holly Proulx, Jennifer M. Jacobs, Elizabeth A. Burakowski, Eunsang Cho, Adam G. Hunsaker, Franklin B. Sullivan, Michael Palace, and Cameron Wagner
The Cryosphere, 17, 3435–3442, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3435-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3435-2023, 2023
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This study compares snow depth measurements from two manual instruments in a field and forest. Snow depths measured using a magnaprobe were typically 1 to 3 cm deeper than those measured using a snow tube. These differences were greater in the forest than in the field.
Mathieu Le Breton, Éric Larose, Laurent Baillet, Yves Lejeune, and Alec van Herwijnen
The Cryosphere, 17, 3137–3156, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3137-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3137-2023, 2023
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We monitor the amount of snow on the ground using passive radiofrequency identification (RFID) tags. These small and inexpensive tags are wirelessly read by a stationary reader placed above the snowpack. Variations in the radiofrequency phase delay accurately reflect variations in snow amount, known as snow water equivalent. Additionally, each tag is equipped with a sensor that monitors the snow temperature.
Alicia F. Pouw, Homa Kheyrollah Pour, and Alex MacLean
The Cryosphere, 17, 2367–2385, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2367-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2367-2023, 2023
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Collecting spatial lake snow depth data is essential for improving lake ice models. Lake ice growth is directly affected by snow on the lake. However, snow on lake ice is highly influenced by wind redistribution, making it important but challenging to measure accurately in a fast and efficient way. This study utilizes ground-penetrating radar on lakes in Canada's sub-arctic to capture spatial lake snow depth and shows success within 10 % error when compared to manual snow depth measurements.
Maxime Beaudoin-Galaise and Sylvain Jutras
The Cryosphere, 16, 3199–3214, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3199-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3199-2022, 2022
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Our study presents an analysis of the uncertainty and measurement error of manual measurement methods of the snow water equivalent (SWE). Snow pit and snow sampler measurements were taken during five consecutive winters. Our results show that, although the snow pit is considered a SWE reference in the literature, it is a method with higher uncertainty and measurement error than large diameter samplers, considered according to our results as the most appropriate reference in a boreal biome.
Rebecca Gugerli, Darin Desilets, and Nadine Salzmann
The Cryosphere, 16, 799–806, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-799-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-799-2022, 2022
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Monitoring the snow water equivalent (SWE) in high mountain regions is highly important and a challenge. We explore the use of muon counts to infer SWE temporally continuously. We deployed muonic cosmic ray snow gauges (µ-CRSG) on a Swiss glacier over the winter 2020/21. Evaluated with manual SWE measurements and SWE estimates inferred from neutron counts, we conclude that the µ-CRSG is a highly promising method for remote high mountain regions with several advantages over other current methods.
Anton Jitnikovitch, Philip Marsh, Branden Walker, and Darin Desilets
The Cryosphere, 15, 5227–5239, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5227-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5227-2021, 2021
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Conventional methods used to measure snow have many limitations which hinder our ability to document annual cycles, test predictive models, or analyze the impact of climate change. A modern snow measurement method using in situ cosmic ray neutron sensors demonstrates the capability of continuously measuring spatially variable snowpacks with considerable accuracy. These sensors can provide important data for testing models, validating remote sensing, and water resource management applications.
Alain Royer, Alexandre Roy, Sylvain Jutras, and Alexandre Langlois
The Cryosphere, 15, 5079–5098, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5079-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5079-2021, 2021
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Dense spatially distributed networks of autonomous instruments for continuously measuring the amount of snow on the ground are needed for operational water resource and flood management and the monitoring of northern climate change. Four new-generation non-invasive sensors are compared. A review of their advantages, drawbacks and accuracy is discussed. This performance analysis is intended to help researchers and decision-makers choose the one system that is best suited to their needs.
Ghislain Picard, Marie Dumont, Maxim Lamare, François Tuzet, Fanny Larue, Roberta Pirazzini, and Laurent Arnaud
The Cryosphere, 14, 1497–1517, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1497-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1497-2020, 2020
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Surface albedo is an essential variable of snow-covered areas. The measurement of this variable over a tilted terrain with levelled sensors is affected by artefacts that need to be corrected. Here we develop a theory of spectral albedo measurement over slopes from which we derive four correction algorithms. The comparison to in situ measurements taken in the Alps shows the adequacy of the theory, and the application of the algorithms shows systematic improvements.
Rebecca Gugerli, Nadine Salzmann, Matthias Huss, and Darin Desilets
The Cryosphere, 13, 3413–3434, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3413-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3413-2019, 2019
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The snow water equivalent (SWE) in high mountain regions is crucial for many applications. Yet its quantification remains difficult. We present autonomous daily SWE observations by a cosmic ray sensor (CRS) deployed on a Swiss glacier for two winter seasons. Combined with snow depth observations, we derive the daily bulk snow density. The validation with manual field observations and its measurement reliability show that the CRS is a promising device for high alpine cryospheric environments.
Adam Schneider, Mark Flanner, Roger De Roo, and Alden Adolph
The Cryosphere, 13, 1753–1766, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1753-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1753-2019, 2019
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To study the process of snow aging, we engineered a prototype instrument called the Near-Infrared Emitting and Reflectance-Monitoring Dome (NERD). Using the NERD, we observed rapid snow aging in experiments with added light absorbing particles (LAPs). Particulate matter deposited on the snow increased absorption of solar energy and enhanced snow melt. These results indicate the role of LAPs' indirect effect on snow aging through a positive feedback mechanism related to the snow grain size.
Ladina Steiner, Michael Meindl, Charles Fierz, and Alain Geiger
The Cryosphere, 12, 3161–3175, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3161-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3161-2018, 2018
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The amount of water stored in snow cover is of high importance for flood risks, climate change, and early-warning systems. We evaluate the potential of using GPS to estimate the stored water. We use GPS antennas buried underneath the snowpack and develop a model based on the path elongation of the GPS signals while propagating through the snowpack. The method works well over full seasons, including melt periods. Results correspond within 10 % to the state-of-the-art reference data.
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Short summary
Snow occurrence, snow amount, snow density and liquid water content (LWC) can vary considerably with climatic conditions and elevation. We show that low-cost Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) sensors as GPS can be used for reliably measuring the amount of water stored in the snowpack or snow water equivalent (SWE), snow depth and the LWC under a broad range of climatic conditions met at different elevations in the Swiss Alps.
Snow occurrence, snow amount, snow density and liquid water content (LWC) can vary considerably...
