Articles | Volume 4, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-545-2010
© Author(s) 2010. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-545-2010
© Author(s) 2010. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
02 Dec 2010
Research article |
| 02 Dec 2010
Understanding snow-transport processes shaping the mountain snow-cover
R. Mott
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, 7260 Davos Dorf, Switzerland
M. Schirmer
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, 7260 Davos Dorf, Switzerland
M. Bavay
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, 7260 Davos Dorf, Switzerland
T. Grünewald
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, 7260 Davos Dorf, Switzerland
M. Lehning
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, 7260 Davos Dorf, Switzerland
Related subject area
Snow Hydrology
Impact of intercepted and sub-canopy snow microstructure on snowpack response to rain-on-snow events under a boreal canopy
Using Sentinel-1 wet snow maps to inform fully-distributed physically-based snowpack models
Towards large-scale daily snow density mapping with spatiotemporally aware model and multi-source data
Drone-based ground-penetrating radar (GPR) application to snow hydrology
Natural climate variability is an important aspect of future projections of snow water resources and rain-on-snow events
Two-dimensional liquid water flow through snow at the plot scale in continental snowpacks: simulations and field data comparisons
Fractional snow-covered area: scale-independent peak of winter parameterization
Seasonal components of freshwater runoff in Glacier Bay, Alaska: diverse spatial patterns and temporal change
Hydrologic flow path development varies by aspect during spring snowmelt in complex subalpine terrain
Snowmelt response to simulated warming across a large elevation gradient, southern Sierra Nevada, California
A continuum model for meltwater flow through compacting snow
Assimilation of snow cover and snow depth into a snow model to estimate snow water equivalent and snowmelt runoff in a Himalayan catchment
Bias corrections of precipitation measurements across experimental sites in different ecoclimatic regions of western Canada
Observations of capillary barriers and preferential flow in layered snow during cold laboratory experiments
A model for the spatial distribution of snow water equivalent parameterized from the spatial variability of precipitation
Multilevel spatiotemporal validation of snow/ice mass balance and runoff modeling in glacierized catchments
Bulk meltwater flow and liquid water content of snowpacks mapped using the electrical self-potential (SP) method
Topographic and vegetation effects on snow accumulation in the southern Sierra Nevada: a statistical summary from lidar data
Inconsistency in precipitation measurements across the Alaska–Yukon border
Precipitation measurement intercomparison in the Qilian Mountains, north-eastern Tibetan Plateau
Independent evaluation of the SNODAS snow depth product using regional-scale lidar-derived measurements
Topographic control of snowpack distribution in a small catchment in the central Spanish Pyrenees: intra- and inter-annual persistence
Modeling bulk density and snow water equivalent using daily snow depth observations
Evaluation of the snow regime in dynamic vegetation land surface models using field measurements
Homogenisation of a gridded snow water equivalent climatology for Alpine terrain: methodology and applications
What drives basin scale spatial variability of snowpack properties in northern Colorado?
Micrometeorological processes driving snow ablation in an Alpine catchment
Freshwater flux to Sermilik Fjord, SE Greenland
Benjamin Bouchard, Daniel F. Nadeau, Florent Domine, Nander Wever, Adrien Michel, Michael Lehning, and Pierre-Erik Isabelle
The Cryosphere, 18, 2783–2807, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2783-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2783-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Observations over several winters at two boreal sites in eastern Canada show that rain-on-snow (ROS) events lead to the formation of melt–freeze layers and that preferential flow is an important water transport mechanism in the sub-canopy snowpack. Simulations with SNOWPACK generally show good agreement with observations, except for the reproduction of melt–freeze layers. This was improved by simulating intercepted snow microstructure evolution, which also modulates ROS-induced runoff.
Bertrand Cluzet, Jan Magnusson, Louis Quéno, Giulia Mazzotti, Rebecca Mott, and Tobias Jonas
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-209, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-209, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We use novel wet snow maps from Sentinel-1 to evaluate simulations of a snow-hydrological model over Switzerland. These data are complementary to available in-situ snow depth observations as they capture a broad diversity of topographic conditions. Wet snow maps allow us to detect a delayed melt onset in the model, which we resolve thanks to an improved parametrization. This opens the way to further evaluation, calibration and data assimilation using wet snow maps.
Huadong Wang, Xueliang Zhang, Pengfeng Xiao, Tao Che, Zhaojun Zheng, Liyun Dai, and Wenbo Luan
The Cryosphere, 17, 33–50, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-33-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-33-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The geographically and temporally weighted neural network (GTWNN) model is constructed for estimating large-scale daily snow density by integrating satellite, ground, and reanalysis data, which addresses the importance of spatiotemporal heterogeneity and a nonlinear relationship between snow density and impact variables, as well as allows us to understand the spatiotemporal pattern and heterogeneity of snow density in different snow periods and snow cover regions in China from 2013 to 2020.
Eole Valence, Michel Baraer, Eric Rosa, Florent Barbecot, and Chloe Monty
The Cryosphere, 16, 3843–3860, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3843-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3843-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The internal properties of the snow cover shape the annual hygrogram of northern and alpine regions. This study develops a multi-method approach to measure the evolution of snowpack internal properties. The snowpack hydrological property evolution was evaluated with drone-based ground-penetrating radar (GPR) measurements. In addition, the combination of GPR observations and time domain reflectometry measurements is shown to be able to be adapted to monitor the snowpack moisture over winter.
Michael Schirmer, Adam Winstral, Tobias Jonas, Paolo Burlando, and Nadav Peleg
The Cryosphere, 16, 3469–3488, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3469-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3469-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Rain is highly variable in time at a given location so that there can be both wet and dry climate periods. In this study, we quantify the effects of this natural climate variability and other sources of uncertainty on changes in flooding events due to rain on snow (ROS) caused by climate change. For ROS events with a significant contribution of snowmelt to runoff, the change due to climate was too small to draw firm conclusions about whether there are more ROS events of this important type.
Ryan W. Webb, Keith Jennings, Stefan Finsterle, and Steven R. Fassnacht
The Cryosphere, 15, 1423–1434, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1423-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1423-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We simulate the flow of liquid water through snow and compare results to field experiments. This process is important because it controls how much and how quickly water will reach our streams and rivers in snowy regions. We found that water can flow large distances downslope through the snow even after the snow has stopped melting. Improved modeling of snowmelt processes will allow us to more accurately estimate available water resources, especially under changing climate conditions.
Nora Helbig, Yves Bühler, Lucie Eberhard, César Deschamps-Berger, Simon Gascoin, Marie Dumont, Jesus Revuelto, Jeff S. Deems, and Tobias Jonas
The Cryosphere, 15, 615–632, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-615-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-615-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The spatial variability in snow depth in mountains is driven by interactions between topography, wind, precipitation and radiation. In applications such as weather, climate and hydrological predictions, this is accounted for by the fractional snow-covered area describing the fraction of the ground surface covered by snow. We developed a new description for model grid cell sizes larger than 200 m. An evaluation suggests that the description performs similarly well in most geographical regions.
Ryan L. Crumley, David F. Hill, Jordan P. Beamer, and Elizabeth R. Holzenthal
The Cryosphere, 13, 1597–1619, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1597-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1597-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we investigate the historical (1980–2015) and projection scenario (2070–2099) components of freshwater runoff to Glacier Bay, Alaska, using a modeling approach. We find that many of the historically snow-dominated watersheds in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve may transition towards rainfall-dominated hydrographs in a projection scenario under RCP 8.5 conditions. The changes in timing and volume of freshwater entering Glacier Bay will affect bay ecology and hydrochemistry.
Ryan W. Webb, Steven R. Fassnacht, and Michael N. Gooseff
The Cryosphere, 12, 287–300, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-287-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-287-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We observed how snowmelt is transported on a hillslope through multiple measurements of snow and soil moisture across a small headwater catchment. We found that snowmelt flows through the snow with less infiltration on north-facing slopes and infiltrates the ground on south-facing slopes. This causes an increase in snow water equivalent at the base of the north-facing slope by as much as 170 %. We present a conceptualization of flow path development to improve future investigations.
Keith N. Musselman, Noah P. Molotch, and Steven A. Margulis
The Cryosphere, 11, 2847–2866, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2847-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2847-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We present a study of how melt rates in the California Sierra Nevada respond to a range of warming projected for this century. Snowfall and melt were simulated for historical and modified (warmer) snow seasons. Winter melt occurs more frequently and more intensely, causing an increase in extreme winter melt. In a warmer climate, less snow persists into the spring, causing spring melt to be substantially lower. The results offer insight into how snow water resources may respond to climate change.
Colin R. Meyer and Ian J. Hewitt
The Cryosphere, 11, 2799–2813, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2799-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2799-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We describe a new model for the evolution of snow temperature, density, and water content on the surface of glaciers and ice sheets. The model encompasses the surface hydrology of accumulation and ablation areas, allowing us to explore the transition from one to the other as thermal forcing varies. We predict year-round liquid water storage for intermediate values of the surface forcing. We also compare our model to data for the vertical percolation of meltwater in Greenland.
Emmy E. Stigter, Niko Wanders, Tuomo M. Saloranta, Joseph M. Shea, Marc F. P. Bierkens, and Walter W. Immerzeel
The Cryosphere, 11, 1647–1664, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1647-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1647-2017, 2017
Xicai Pan, Daqing Yang, Yanping Li, Alan Barr, Warren Helgason, Masaki Hayashi, Philip Marsh, John Pomeroy, and Richard J. Janowicz
The Cryosphere, 10, 2347–2360, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2347-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2347-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
This study demonstrates a robust procedure for accumulating precipitation gauge measurements and provides an analysis of bias corrections of precipitation measurements across experimental sites in different ecoclimatic regions of western Canada. It highlights the need for and importance of precipitation bias corrections at both research sites and operational networks for water balance assessment and the validation of global/regional climate–hydrology models.
Francesco Avanzi, Hiroyuki Hirashima, Satoru Yamaguchi, Takafumi Katsushima, and Carlo De Michele
The Cryosphere, 10, 2013–2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2013-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2013-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate capillary barriers and preferential flow in layered snow during nine cold laboratory experiments. The dynamics of each sample were replicated solving Richards equation within the 1-D multi-layer physically based SNOWPACK model. Results show that both processes affect the speed of water infiltration in stratified snow and are marked by a high degree of spatial variability at cm scale and complex 3-D patterns.
Thomas Skaugen and Ingunn H. Weltzien
The Cryosphere, 10, 1947–1963, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1947-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1947-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
In hydrological models it is important to properly simulate the spatial distribution of snow water equivalent (SWE) for the timing of spring melt floods and the accounting of energy fluxes. This paper describes a method for the spatial distribution of SWE which is parameterised from observed spatial variability of precipitation and has hence no calibration parameters. Results show improved simulation of SWE and the evolution of snow-free areas when compared with the standard method.
Florian Hanzer, Kay Helfricht, Thomas Marke, and Ulrich Strasser
The Cryosphere, 10, 1859–1881, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1859-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1859-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The hydroclimatological model AMUNDSEN is set up to simulate snow and ice accumulation, ablation, and runoff for a study region in the Ötztal Alps (Austria) in the period 1997–2013. A new validation concept is introduced and demonstrated by evaluating the model performance using several independent data sets, e.g. snow depth measurements, satellite-derived snow maps, lidar data, glacier mass balances, and runoff measurements.
Sarah S. Thompson, Bernd Kulessa, Richard L. H. Essery, and Martin P. Lüthi
The Cryosphere, 10, 433–444, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-433-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-433-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We show that strong electrical self-potential fields are generated in melting in in situ snowpacks at Rhone Glacier and Jungfraujoch Glacier, Switzerland. We conclude that the electrical self-potential method is a promising snow and firn hydrology sensor, owing to its suitability for sensing lateral and vertical liquid water flows directly and minimally invasively, complementing established observational programs and monitoring autonomously at a low cost.
Z. Zheng, P. B. Kirchner, and R. C. Bales
The Cryosphere, 10, 257–269, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-257-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-257-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
By analyzing high-resolution lidar products and using statistical methods, we quantified the snow depth dependency on elevation, slope and aspect of the terrain and also the surrounding vegetation in four catchment size sites in the southern Sierra Nevada during snow peak season. The relative importance of topographic and vegetation attributes varies with elevation and canopy, but all these attributes were found significant in affecting snow distribution in mountain basins.
L. Scaff, D. Yang, Y. Li, and E. Mekis
The Cryosphere, 9, 2417–2428, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2417-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2417-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
The bias corrections show significant errors in the gauge precipitation measurements over the northern regions. Monthly precipitation is closely correlated between the stations across the Alaska--Yukon border, particularly for the warm months. Double mass curves indicate changes in the cumulative precipitation due to bias corrections over the study period. Overall the bias corrections lead to a smaller and inverted precipitation gradient across the border, especially for snowfall.
R. Chen, J. Liu, E. Kang, Y. Yang, C. Han, Z. Liu, Y. Song, W. Qing, and P. Zhu
The Cryosphere, 9, 1995–2008, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1995-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1995-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
The catch ratio of Chinese standard precipitation gauge vs. wind speed relationship for different precipitation types was well quantified by cubic polynomials and exponential functions using 5-year field data in the high-mountain environment of the Tibetan Plateau. The daily precipitation measured by shielded gauges increases linearly with that of unshielded gauges. The pit gauge catches the most local precipitation in rainy season and could be used as a reference in most regions of China.
A. Hedrick, H.-P. Marshall, A. Winstral, K. Elder, S. Yueh, and D. Cline
The Cryosphere, 9, 13–23, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-13-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-13-2015, 2015
J. Revuelto, J. I. López-Moreno, C. Azorin-Molina, and S. M. Vicente-Serrano
The Cryosphere, 8, 1989–2006, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1989-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1989-2014, 2014
J. L. McCreight and E. E. Small
The Cryosphere, 8, 521–536, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-521-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-521-2014, 2014
E. Kantzas, S. Quegan, M. Lomas, and E. Zakharova
The Cryosphere, 8, 487–502, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-487-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-487-2014, 2014
S. Jörg-Hess, F. Fundel, T. Jonas, and M. Zappa
The Cryosphere, 8, 471–485, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-471-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-471-2014, 2014
G. A. Sexstone and S. R. Fassnacht
The Cryosphere, 8, 329–344, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-329-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-329-2014, 2014
R. Mott, L. Egli, T. Grünewald, N. Dawes, C. Manes, M. Bavay, and M. Lehning
The Cryosphere, 5, 1083–1098, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-1083-2011, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-1083-2011, 2011
S. H. Mernild, I. M. Howat, Y. Ahn, G. E. Liston, K. Steffen, B. H. Jakobsen, B. Hasholt, B. Fog, and D. van As
The Cryosphere, 4, 453–465, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-453-2010, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-453-2010, 2010
Cited articles
Bellaire, S. and Schweizer, J.: Measuring spatial variations of weak layer and slab properties with regard to snow slope stability, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2010.08.013, in press, 2010.
Bernhardt, M., Liston, G. E., Strasser, U., Zängl, G., and Schulz, K.: High resolution modelling of snow transport in complex terrain using downscaled MM5 wind fields, The Cryosphere, 4, 99–113, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-99-2010, 2010.
Chamecki, M., Meneveau, C., and Parlange, M. B.: A hybrid spectral/finite-volume algorithm for large eddy simulation of scalars in the atmospheric boundary layer, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 128(3), 473–484, 2008.
Clifton, A. and Lehning, M.: Improvement and validation of a snow saltation model using wind tunnel measurements, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 33, 2156–2173, 2008.
Dadic, R., Mott, R., Lehning, M., and Burlando, P.: Wind influence on snow depth distribution and accumulation over glaciers, J. Geophys. Res., 115, F01012, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001261, 2010a.
Dadic, R., Mott, R., Lehning, M., and Burlando, P.: Parameterization for Wind-Induced Preferential Deposition of Snow, Hydrol. Process., 24, 1994–2006, 2010b.
Doorschot, J., Lehning, M., and Vrouwe, A.: Field measurements of snow drift threshold and mass fluxes, and related model simulations, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 113(3), 347–368, 2004.
Essery, R.: Spatial statistics of wind flow and blowing snow fluxes over complex terrain, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 100, 131–147, 2001.
Fang, X. and Pomeroy, J. W.: Modelling blowing snow redistribution to Prairie wetlands, Hydrol. Process., 23, 2557–2569, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7348, 2009.
Gauer, P.: Numerical modeling of blowing and drifting snow in Alpine terrain, J. Glaciol., 47(156), 97–110, 2001.
Groot Zwaaftink, C. D. and Lehning, M.: Sublimation of drifting snow in an Alpine catchment, Extended abstracts, 14th Conference on Mountain Meteorology, Lake Tahoe Vicinity, USA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Paper 8.3., 2010.
Grünewald, T., Schirmer, M., Mott, R., and Lehning, M.: Spatial and temporal variability of snow depth and ablation rates in a small mountain catchment, The Cryosphere, 4, 215–225, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-215-2010, 2010.
Helbig, N., L{ö}we, H., and Lehning, M: Radiosity approach for the shortwave surface radiation balance in complex terrain, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 2900–2912, 2009.
Helbig, N., Lehning, M, L{ö}we, H., and Mayer, B: Explicit validation of a surface shortwave radiation energy model over snow covered complex terrain, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D18113, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD013970, 2010.
Lehning, M., Doorschot, J., and Bartelt, P.: A snow drift index based on SNOWPACK model calculations, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 31, 382–386, 2000.
Lehning, M., L{ö}we, H., Ryser, M., and Raderschall, N.: Inhomogeneous precipitation distribution and snow transport in steep terrain, Water Resour. Res., 44, W09425, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006544, 2008.
Lehning, M. and Fierz, C.: Assessment of snow transport in avalanche terrain, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 51, 240–252, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.05.012, 2008.
Lewis, H., Mobbs, S. D., and Lehning, M.: Observations of cross-ridge flows over steep terrain, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 134, 801–816, 2008.
Liston, G. E. and Elder, K.: A meteorological distribution system for high-resolution terrestrial modeling (MicroMet), J. Hydrometeorol., 7(2), 217–234, 2006.
Liston, G. E., Haehnel, R. B., Sturm, M., Hiemstra, C. A., Berezovskaya, S., and Tabler, R. D.: Instruments and methods simulating complex snow distributions in windy environments using SnowTran-3D, J. Glaciol., 53(181), 241–256. 2007.
Luce, C. H., Tarboton, D. G., and Cooley, K. R.: The influence of the spatial distribution of snow on basin-averaged snowmelt, Hydrol. Process., 12(10–11), 1671–1683, 1998.
Male, D. H.: The seasonal snowcover, in: Dynamics of Snow and Ice Masses, edited by: Colbeck, S. G., Academic Press, 305–395, 1980.
Mellor, M.: Blowing Snow, CRREL, Monogr. III-A3c, 1965.
Mott, R. and Lehning, M.: Meteorological modeling of very-high resolution wind fields and snow deposition for mountains, J. Hydrometeorol., 11, 934–949, 2010.
Mott, R., Faure, F., Lehning, M., L{ö}we, H., Hynek, B., Michlmayr, G., Prokop, A., and Schöner, W.: Simulation of seasonal snow-cover distribution for glacierized sites on Sonnblick, Austria, with the Alpine3D model, Ann. Glaciol., 49, 155–160, 2008.
Pomeroy, J. W. and Gray, D. M.: Saltation of snow, Water Resour. Res., 26(7), 1583–1594, 1990.
Pomeroy, J. W., Marsh, P., and Gray, D. M.: Application of a distributed blowing snow model to the Arctic, Hydrol. Process., 11(11), 1451–1464, 1997.
Prokop, A.: Assessing the applicability of terrestrial laser scanning for spatial snow depth measurements, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 54(3), 155–163, 2008.
Prokop, A., Schirmer, M., Rub, M., Lehning, M., and Stocker, M.: A comparison of measurement methods: terrestrial laser scanning, tachymetry and snow probing, for the determination of spatial snow depth distribution on slopes, Ann. Glaciol., 49, 210–216, 2008.
Purves, R., Barton, J., Mackaness, W., and Sugden, D.: The development of a rule-based spatial model of wind transport and deposition of snow, Ann. Glaciol., 26, 197–202, 1998.
Raderschall, N., Lehning, M., and Sch{ä}r, M.: Fine-scale modeling of the boundary layer wind field over steep topography, Water Resour. Res., 44, W09425, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006544, 2008.
Schaffhauser, A., Adams, M., Fromm, R., J{ö}rg, P., Luzi, G., Noferini, L., and Sailer, R.: Remote sensing based retrieval of snow-cover properties, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 54(3), 164–175, 2008.
Schirmer, M. and Lehning, M.: Persistence in intra-annual snow depth distribution, Part 2: Fractal analysis of snow depth development, Water Resour. Res., submitted, 2010.
Schirmer, M., Lehning, M., and Schweizer, J.: Statistical evaluation of local to regional snowpack stability using simulated snow-cover data, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 64(2), 110–118, 2010a.
Schirmer, M., Wirz, V., Clifton, A., and Lehning, M.: Persistence in intra-annual snow depth distribution, Part 1: Measurements and topographic control, Water Resour. Res., submitted, 2010b.
Schmidt, R. A.: Transport rate of drifting snow and the mean wind speed profile, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 34(3), 213–241, 1986.
Schweizer, J., Jamieson, B., and Schneebeli, M..: Snow avalanche formation, Rev. Geophys., 41(4), 1016–1041, 2003.
Skaloud, J., Vallet, J., Keller, K., Veyssiere, G., and K{ö}lbl, O.: An eye for landscapes – rapid 15 aerial mapping with handheld sensors, GPS World, 17, 26–32, 2006.
Stössel, F., Manes, C., Guala, M., Fierz, C., and Lehning, M.: Micrometeorological and morphological observations of surface hoar dynamics on a mountain snow-cover, Water Resour. Res., 46, W04511, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008198, 2010.
Swiss Experiment: www.swiss-experiment.ch, access: October 2010.
Tabler, R. D.: Predicting profiles of snowdrifts in topographic catchments, P. West. Snow Conf., 43, 87–89, 1975.
Uematsu, T., Nakata, K., Takeuchi, K., Arisawa, Y., and Kaneda, Y.: Three-dimensional numerical simulation of snowdrift, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 20(1), 65–73, 1991.
Winstral, A. and Marks, D.: Simulating wind fields and snow redistribution using terrain-based parameters to model snow accumulation and melt over semi-arid mountain catchment, Hydrol. Process., 16(18), 3583–3603, 2002.
Winstral, A., Elder K., and Davis, R. E.: Spatial snow modeling of wind-redistributed snow using terrain-based parameters, J. Hydrometeorol., 3(5), 524–538, 2002.
Xue, M., Droegemeier, K. K., Wong, V., Shapiro, A., and Brewster, K.: The Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS) – A multi-scale non-hydrostatic atmospheric simulation model, Part 2: Model physics and applications, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 76, 143–165, 2004.
