Articles | Volume 17, issue 8
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3443-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3443-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
23 Aug 2023
Research article |
| 23 Aug 2023
| 23 Aug 2023
Grain growth of natural and synthetic ice at 0 °C
Sheng Fan
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Department of Geology, University of Otago, Ōtepoti / Dunedin, Aotearoa / New Zealand
RSC, 93 The Terrace, Te Whanganui-a-Tara / Wellington, Aotearoa / New Zealand
David J. Prior
Department of Geology, University of Otago, Ōtepoti / Dunedin, Aotearoa / New Zealand
Brent Pooley
Department of Geology, University of Otago, Ōtepoti / Dunedin, Aotearoa / New Zealand
Hamish Bowman
Department of Geology, University of Otago, Ōtepoti / Dunedin, Aotearoa / New Zealand
Lucy Davidson
Department of Geology, University of Otago, Ōtepoti / Dunedin, Aotearoa / New Zealand
David Wallis
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Sandra Piazolo
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology
and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
David L. Goldsby
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Travis F. Hager
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Qinyu Wang, Sheng Fan, Daniel H. Richards, Rachel Worthington, David J. Prior, and Chao Qi
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-331, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-331, 2024
Short summary
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To examine if the single cluster fabric in natural ice is formed due to high strains, we deformed synthetic ice to large strains using a unique technique. A shear strain of 6.2 was achieved in laboratory. We explored how the two mechanisms, which control microstructure and fabric evolution, evolve with strain, and established a fabric development model. These results will help understanding the fabrics in natural ice and further comprehending glacier and ice sheet flow dynamics.
Qinyu Wang, Sheng Fan, and Chao Qi
The Cryosphere, 18, 1053–1084, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1053-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1053-2024, 2024
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We explored how the grain size of polycrystalline ice is affected by soluble impurities by conducting experiments on ice-containing salts. Results showed that above/below the eutectic point, impurities enhance/hinder grain growth, due to production of melts/precipitation of salt hydrates. Our findings offer insights into the dynamics of natural ice masses.
Franz Lutz, David J. Prior, Holly Still, M. Hamish Bowman, Bia Boucinhas, Lisa Craw, Sheng Fan, Daeyeong Kim, Robert Mulvaney, Rilee E. Thomas, and Christina L. Hulbe
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Ice crystal alignment in the sheared margins of fast-flowing polar ice is important as it may control the ice sheet flow rate, from land to the ocean. Sampling shear margins is difficult because of logistical and safety considerations. We show that crystal alignments in a glacier shear margin in Antarctica can be measured using sound waves. Results from a seismic experiment on the 50 m scale and from ultrasonic experiments on the decimetre scale match ice crystal measurements from an ice core.
Lisa Craw, Adam Treverrow, Sheng Fan, Mark Peternell, Sue Cook, Felicity McCormack, and Jason Roberts
The Cryosphere, 15, 2235–2250, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2235-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2235-2021, 2021
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Ice sheet and ice shelf models rely on data from experiments to accurately represent the way ice moves. Performing experiments at the temperatures and stresses that are generally present in nature takes a long time, and so there are few of these datasets. Here, we test the method of speeding up an experiment by running it initially at a higher temperature, before dropping to a lower target temperature to generate the relevant data. We show that this method can reduce experiment time by 55 %.
Morgan E. Monz, Peter J. Hudleston, David J. Prior, Zachary Michels, Sheng Fan, Marianne Negrini, Pat J. Langhorne, and Chao Qi
The Cryosphere, 15, 303–324, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-303-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-303-2021, 2021
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We present full crystallographic orientations of warm, coarse-grained ice deformed in a shear setting, enabling better characterization of how crystals in glacial ice preferentially align as ice flows. A commonly noted c-axis pattern, with several favored orientations, may result from bias due to overcounting large crystals with complex 3D shapes. A new sample preparation method effectively increases the sample size and reduces bias, resulting in a simpler pattern consistent with the ice flow.
Sheng Fan, Travis F. Hager, David J. Prior, Andrew J. Cross, David L. Goldsby, Chao Qi, Marianne Negrini, and John Wheeler
The Cryosphere, 14, 3875–3905, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3875-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3875-2020, 2020
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We performed uniaxial compression experiments on synthetic ice samples. We report ice microstructural evolution at –20 and –30 °C that has never been reported before. Microstructural data show the opening angle of c-axis cones decreases with increasing strain or with decreasing temperature, suggesting a more active grain rotation. CPO intensity weakens with temperature because CPO of small grains is weaker, and it can be explained by grain boundary sliding or nucleation with random orientations.
Chao Qi, David J. Prior, Lisa Craw, Sheng Fan, Maria-Gema Llorens, Albert Griera, Marianne Negrini, Paul D. Bons, and David L. Goldsby
The Cryosphere, 13, 351–371, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-351-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-351-2019, 2019
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Ice deformed in nature develops crystallographic preferred orientations, CPOs, which induce an anisotropy in ice viscosity. Shear experiments of ice revealed a transition in CPO with changing temperature/strain, which is due to the change of dominant CPO-formation mechanism: strain-induced grain boundary migration dominates at higher temperatures and lower strains, while lattice rotation dominates at other conditions. Understanding these mechanisms aids the interpretation of CPOs in natural ice.
Daniel H. Richards, Elisa Mantelli, Samuel S. Pegler, and Sandra Piazolo
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3067, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3067, 2024
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Ice behaves differently depending on its crystal orientation, but how this affects its flow is unclear. We combine a range of previous models into a common equation to better understand crystal alignment. We tested a range of previous models on ice streams and divides, discovering that the best fit to observations comes from a) assuming neighbouring crystals have the same stress, and b) through describing the effect of crystal orientation on the flow in a way that allows directional variation.
Qinyu Wang, Sheng Fan, Daniel H. Richards, Rachel Worthington, David J. Prior, and Chao Qi
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-331, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-331, 2024
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Short summary
To examine if the single cluster fabric in natural ice is formed due to high strains, we deformed synthetic ice to large strains using a unique technique. A shear strain of 6.2 was achieved in laboratory. We explored how the two mechanisms, which control microstructure and fabric evolution, evolve with strain, and established a fabric development model. These results will help understanding the fabrics in natural ice and further comprehending glacier and ice sheet flow dynamics.
Frances A. Procter, Sandra Piazolo, Eleanor H. John, Richard Walshaw, Paul N. Pearson, Caroline H. Lear, and Tracy Aze
Biogeosciences, 21, 1213–1233, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1213-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1213-2024, 2024
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This study uses novel techniques to look at the microstructure of planktonic foraminifera (single-celled marine organisms) fossils, to further our understanding of how they form their hard exterior shells and how the microstructure and chemistry of these shells can change as a result of processes that occur after deposition on the seafloor. Understanding these processes is of critical importance for using planktonic foraminifera for robust climate and environmental reconstructions of the past.
Qinyu Wang, Sheng Fan, and Chao Qi
The Cryosphere, 18, 1053–1084, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1053-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1053-2024, 2024
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We explored how the grain size of polycrystalline ice is affected by soluble impurities by conducting experiments on ice-containing salts. Results showed that above/below the eutectic point, impurities enhance/hinder grain growth, due to production of melts/precipitation of salt hydrates. Our findings offer insights into the dynamics of natural ice masses.
Daniel H. Richards, Samuel S. Pegler, and Sandra Piazolo
The Cryosphere, 16, 4571–4592, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4571-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4571-2022, 2022
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Understanding the orientation of ice grains is key for predicting ice flow. We explore the evolution of these orientations using a new efficient model. We present an exploration of the patterns produced under a range of temperatures and 2D deformations, including for the first time a universal regime diagram. We do this for deformations relevant to ice sheets but not studied in experiments. These results can be used to understand drilled ice cores and improve future modelling of ice sheets.
Franz Lutz, David J. Prior, Holly Still, M. Hamish Bowman, Bia Boucinhas, Lisa Craw, Sheng Fan, Daeyeong Kim, Robert Mulvaney, Rilee E. Thomas, and Christina L. Hulbe
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Ice crystal alignment in the sheared margins of fast-flowing polar ice is important as it may control the ice sheet flow rate, from land to the ocean. Sampling shear margins is difficult because of logistical and safety considerations. We show that crystal alignments in a glacier shear margin in Antarctica can be measured using sound waves. Results from a seismic experiment on the 50 m scale and from ultrasonic experiments on the decimetre scale match ice crystal measurements from an ice core.
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Polar ice is formed by ice crystals, which form fabrics that are utilised to interpret how ice sheets flow. It is unclear whether fabrics result from the current flow regime or if they are inherited. To understand the extent to which ice crystals can be reoriented when ice flow conditions change, we simulate and evaluate multi-stage ice flow scenarios according to natural cases. We find that second deformation regimes normally overprint inherited fabrics, with a range of transitional fabrics.
Mark D. Behn, David L. Goldsby, and Greg Hirth
The Cryosphere, 15, 4589–4605, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4589-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4589-2021, 2021
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Grain size is a key microphysical property of ice, controlling the rheological behavior of ice sheets and glaciers. In this study, we develop a new model for grain size evolution in ice and show that it accurately predicts grain size in laboratory experiments and in natural ice core data. The model provides a physical explanation for the power-law relationship between stress and strain rate known as the Glen law and can be used as a predictive tool for modeling ice flow in natural systems.
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The Cryosphere, 15, 2235–2250, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2235-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2235-2021, 2021
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Ice sheet and ice shelf models rely on data from experiments to accurately represent the way ice moves. Performing experiments at the temperatures and stresses that are generally present in nature takes a long time, and so there are few of these datasets. Here, we test the method of speeding up an experiment by running it initially at a higher temperature, before dropping to a lower target temperature to generate the relevant data. We show that this method can reduce experiment time by 55 %.
Morgan E. Monz, Peter J. Hudleston, David J. Prior, Zachary Michels, Sheng Fan, Marianne Negrini, Pat J. Langhorne, and Chao Qi
The Cryosphere, 15, 303–324, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-303-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-303-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We present full crystallographic orientations of warm, coarse-grained ice deformed in a shear setting, enabling better characterization of how crystals in glacial ice preferentially align as ice flows. A commonly noted c-axis pattern, with several favored orientations, may result from bias due to overcounting large crystals with complex 3D shapes. A new sample preparation method effectively increases the sample size and reduces bias, resulting in a simpler pattern consistent with the ice flow.
Sheng Fan, Travis F. Hager, David J. Prior, Andrew J. Cross, David L. Goldsby, Chao Qi, Marianne Negrini, and John Wheeler
The Cryosphere, 14, 3875–3905, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3875-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3875-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We performed uniaxial compression experiments on synthetic ice samples. We report ice microstructural evolution at –20 and –30 °C that has never been reported before. Microstructural data show the opening angle of c-axis cones decreases with increasing strain or with decreasing temperature, suggesting a more active grain rotation. CPO intensity weakens with temperature because CPO of small grains is weaker, and it can be explained by grain boundary sliding or nucleation with random orientations.
Chao Qi, David J. Prior, Lisa Craw, Sheng Fan, Maria-Gema Llorens, Albert Griera, Marianne Negrini, Paul D. Bons, and David L. Goldsby
The Cryosphere, 13, 351–371, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-351-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-351-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Ice deformed in nature develops crystallographic preferred orientations, CPOs, which induce an anisotropy in ice viscosity. Shear experiments of ice revealed a transition in CPO with changing temperature/strain, which is due to the change of dominant CPO-formation mechanism: strain-induced grain boundary migration dominates at higher temperatures and lower strains, while lattice rotation dominates at other conditions. Understanding these mechanisms aids the interpretation of CPOs in natural ice.
Steven B. Kidder, Virginia G. Toy, David J. Prior, Timothy A. Little, Ashfaq Khan, and Colin MacRae
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R. L. Gardner, S. Piazolo, and N. R. Daczko
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Related subject area
Discipline: Ice sheets | Subject: Ice Physics
Failure strength of glacier ice inferred from Greenland crevasses
Ice fabrics in two-dimensional flows: beyond pure and simple shear
Modeling enhanced firn densification due to strain softening
Polarimetric radar reveals the spatial distribution of ice fabric at domes and divides in East Antarctica
Geothermal heat flux from measured temperature profiles in deep ice boreholes in Antarctica
Sensitivity of ice loss to uncertainty in flow law parameters in an idealized one-dimensional geometry
Observation of an optical anisotropy in the deep glacial ice at the geographic South Pole using a laser dust logger
Using a composite flow law to model deformation in the NEEM deep ice core, Greenland – Part 1: The role of grain size and grain size distribution on deformation of the upper 2207 m
Using a composite flow law to model deformation in the NEEM deep ice core, Greenland – Part 2: The role of grain size and premelting on ice deformation at high homologous temperature
The role of subtemperate slip in thermally driven ice stream margin migration
Deriving micro- to macro-scale seismic velocities from ice-core c axis orientations
Aslak Grinsted, Nicholas Mossor Rathmann, Ruth Mottram, Anne Munck Solgaard, Joachim Mathiesen, and Christine Schøtt Hvidberg
The Cryosphere, 18, 1947–1957, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1947-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1947-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ice fracture can cause glacier crevassing and calving. These natural hazards can also modulate the flow and evolution of ice sheets. In a new study, we use a new high-resolution dataset to determine a new failure criterion for glacier ice. Surprisingly, the strength of ice depends on the mode of deformation, and this has potential implications for the currently used flow law of ice.
Daniel H. Richards, Samuel S. Pegler, and Sandra Piazolo
The Cryosphere, 16, 4571–4592, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4571-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4571-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the orientation of ice grains is key for predicting ice flow. We explore the evolution of these orientations using a new efficient model. We present an exploration of the patterns produced under a range of temperatures and 2D deformations, including for the first time a universal regime diagram. We do this for deformations relevant to ice sheets but not studied in experiments. These results can be used to understand drilled ice cores and improve future modelling of ice sheets.
Falk M. Oraschewski and Aslak Grinsted
The Cryosphere, 16, 2683–2700, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2683-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2683-2022, 2022
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Old snow (denoted as firn) accumulates in the interior of ice sheets and gets densified into glacial ice. Typically, this densification is assumed to only depend on temperature and accumulation rate. However, it has been observed that stretching of the firn by horizontal flow also enhances this process. Here, we show how to include this effect in classical firn models. With the model we confirm that softening of the firn controls firn densification in areas with strong horizontal stretching.
M. Reza Ershadi, Reinhard Drews, Carlos Martín, Olaf Eisen, Catherine Ritz, Hugh Corr, Julia Christmann, Ole Zeising, Angelika Humbert, and Robert Mulvaney
The Cryosphere, 16, 1719–1739, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1719-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1719-2022, 2022
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Radio waves transmitted through ice split up and inform us about the ice sheet interior and orientation of single ice crystals. This can be used to infer how ice flows and improve projections on how it will evolve in the future. Here we used an inverse approach and developed a new algorithm to infer ice properties from observed radar data. We applied this technique to the radar data obtained at two EPICA drilling sites, where ice cores were used to validate our results.
Pavel Talalay, Yazhou Li, Laurent Augustin, Gary D. Clow, Jialin Hong, Eric Lefebvre, Alexey Markov, Hideaki Motoyama, and Catherine Ritz
The Cryosphere, 14, 4021–4037, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4021-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4021-2020, 2020
Maria Zeitz, Anders Levermann, and Ricarda Winkelmann
The Cryosphere, 14, 3537–3550, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3537-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3537-2020, 2020
Short summary
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The flow of ice drives mass losses in the large ice sheets. Sea-level rise projections rely on ice-sheet models, solving the physics of ice flow and melt. Unfortunately the parameters in the physics of flow are uncertain. Here we show, in an idealized setup, that these uncertainties can double flow-driven mass losses within the possible range of parameters. It is possible that this uncertainty carries over to realistic sea-level rise projections.
Martin Rongen, Ryan Carlton Bay, and Summer Blot
The Cryosphere, 14, 2537–2543, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2537-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2537-2020, 2020
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We report on the observation of a directional anisotropy in the intensity of backscattered light. The measurement was performed using a laser dust logger in the SPC14 drill hole at the geographic South Pole. We find the anisotropy axis to be compatible with the ice flow direction. It is discussed in comparison to a similar anisotropy observed by the IceCube Neutrino Observatory. In future, the measurement principle may provide a continuous record of crystal properties along entire drill holes.
Ernst-Jan N. Kuiper, Ilka Weikusat, Johannes H. P. de Bresser, Daniela Jansen, Gill M. Pennock, and Martyn R. Drury
The Cryosphere, 14, 2429–2448, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2429-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2429-2020, 2020
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A composite flow law model applied to crystal size distributions from the NEEM deep ice core predicts that fine-grained layers in ice from the last Glacial period localize deformation as internal shear zones in the Greenland ice sheet deforming by grain-size-sensitive creep. This prediction is consistent with microstructures in Glacial age ice.
Ernst-Jan N. Kuiper, Johannes H. P. de Bresser, Martyn R. Drury, Jan Eichler, Gill M. Pennock, and Ilka Weikusat
The Cryosphere, 14, 2449–2467, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2449-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2449-2020, 2020
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Fast ice flow occurs in deeper parts of polar ice sheets, driven by high stress and high temperatures. Above 262 K ice flow is further enhanced, probably by the formation of thin melt layers between ice crystals. A model applying an experimentally derived composite flow law, using temperature and grain size values from the deepest 540 m of the NEEM ice core, predicts that flow in fine-grained layers is enhanced by a factor of 10 compared to coarse-grained layers in the Greenland ice sheet.
Marianne Haseloff, Christian Schoof, and Olivier Gagliardini
The Cryosphere, 12, 2545–2568, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2545-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2545-2018, 2018
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The widths of the Siple Coast ice streams evolve on decadal to centennial timescales. We investigate how the rate of thermally driven ice stream widening depends on heat dissipation in the ice stream margin and at the bed, and on the inflow of cold ice from the ice ridge. As determining the migration rate requires resolving heat transfer processes on very small scales, we derive a parametrization of the migration rate in terms of parameters that are available from large-scale model outputs.
Johanna Kerch, Anja Diez, Ilka Weikusat, and Olaf Eisen
The Cryosphere, 12, 1715–1734, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1715-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1715-2018, 2018
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We investigate the effect of crystal anisotropy on seismic velocities in glacier ice by calculating seismic phase velocities using the exact c axis angles to describe the crystal orientations in ice-core samples for an alpine and a polar ice core. Our results provide uncertainty estimates for earlier established approximative calculations. Additionally, our findings highlight the variation in seismic velocity at non-vertical incidence as a function of the horizontal azimuth of the seismic plane.
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Short summary
The microstructure of ice controls the behaviour of polar ice flow. Grain growth can modify the microstructure of ice; however, its processes and kinetics are poorly understood. We conduct grain-growth experiments on synthetic and natural ice samples at 0 °C. Microstructural data show synthetic ice grows continuously with time. In contrast, natural ice does not grow within a month. The inhibition of grain growth in natural ice is largely contributed by bubble pinning at ice grain boundaries.
The microstructure of ice controls the behaviour of polar ice flow. Grain growth can modify the...
