Articles | Volume 20, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1997-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-1997-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
10 Apr 2026
Research article |
| 10 Apr 2026
| 10 Apr 2026
Effects of subgrid-scale ice topography on the ice shelf basal melting simulated in NEMO-4.2.0
SMHI, Norrköping, Sweden
Univ. Grenoble Alpes/CNRS/IRD/G-INP/INRAE, IGE, Grenoble, France
Nicolas C. Jourdain
Univ. Grenoble Alpes/CNRS/IRD/G-INP/INRAE, IGE, Grenoble, France
Pierre Mathiot
Univ. Grenoble Alpes/CNRS/IRD/G-INP/INRAE, IGE, Grenoble, France
Related authors
No articles found.
Pierre Mathiot, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Benoit Urruty, Fabien Gillet-Chaulet, Olivier Gagliardini, and Gaël Durand
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-927, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-927, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
How the Antarctic ice sheet responds to rapid ocean warming remains uncertain. To explore this, we used a coupled ocean–ice sheet model. We compared simulations under present-day conditions with simulations under strong future warming for 50 years, then returned to today’s climate. The ocean warmed quickly but recovered within decades. In contrast, several ice streams continued to retreat for centuries. This shows that even brief warming could cause lasting ice loss and sea-level rise.
Helen Ockenden, Clara Burgard, Pierre Mathiot, Christoph Kittel, Achille Gellens, Cécile Agosta, and Nicolas C. Jourdain
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-6314, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-6314, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Geoscientific Model Development (GMD).
Short summary
Short summary
Since numerical computing is expensive, climate models must decide between having a high spatial resolution or running for long time periods. Here, we develop a simple neural network to emulate small-scale processes occurring beneath Antarctic ice shelves, which allows sub-shelf melt and ice-ocean interactions to be included in global ocean models which can run for multiple centuries. This neural network will help us to understand how ocean circulation may change in the future.
Benjamin Heurgue, Charles Amory, Christoph Kittel, Fredrik Boberg, Gaël Durand, Vincent Favier, Xavier Fettweis, Quentin Glaude, Heiko Goelzer, Nicolaj Hansen, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Ruth Mottram, Martin Olesen, Willem Jan Van de Berg, Michiel R. Van den Broeke, and René R. Wijngaard
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-624, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-624, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how the Antarctic ice sheet surface mass balance may change by 2100 using three high-resolution climate models forced by the same future climate scenario. While the models agree for present-day conditions, they project very different futures, especially over floating ice shelves. These differences mainly come from how melting, refreezing, and temperature are represented. Our results show that future sea level projections strongly depend on how well models simulate today’s climate.
Yavor Kostov, Paul R. Holland, Kelly A. Hogan, James A. Smith, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Pierre Mathiot, Anna Olivé Abelló, Andrew H. Fleming, and Andrew J. S. Meijers
The Cryosphere, 20, 135–169, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-135-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-135-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
Icebergs ground when they reach shallow topography such as Bear Ridge in the Amundsen Sea. Grounded icebergs can block the transport of sea-ice and create areas of higher and lower sea-ice concentration. We introduce a physically and observationally motivated representation of grounding in an ocean model. In addition, we improve the way simulated icebergs respond to winds, ocean currents, and density differences in sea water. We analyse the forces acting on freely floating and grounded icebergs.
Gavin A. Schmidt, Kenneth D. Mankoff, Jonathan L. Bamber, Clara Burgard, Dustin Carroll, David M. Chandler, Violaine Coulon, Benjamin J. Davison, Matthew H. England, Paul R. Holland, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Qian Li, Juliana M. Marson, Pierre Mathiot, Clive R. McMahon, Twila A. Moon, Ruth Mottram, Sophie Nowicki, Anna Olivé Abelló, Andrew G. Pauling, Thomas Rackow, and Damien Ringeisen
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 8333–8361, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-8333-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-8333-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The impact of increasing mass loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets has not so far been included in historical climate model simulations. This paper describes the protocols and data available for modeling groups to add this anomalous freshwater to their ocean modules to better represent the impacts of these fluxes on ocean circulation, sea ice, salinity and sea level.
Johanna Beckmann, Ronja Reese, Felicity S. McCormack, Sue Cook, Lawrence Bird, Dawid Gwyther, Daniel Richards, Matthias Scheiter, Yu Wang, Hélène Seroussi, Ayako Abe‐Ouchi, Torsten Albrecht, Jorge Alvarez‐Solas, Xylar S. Asay‐Davis, Jean‐Baptiste Barre, Constantijn J. Berends, Jorge Bernales, Javier Blasco, Justine Caillet, David M. Chandler, Violaine Coulon, Richard Cullather, Christophe Dumas, Benjamin K. Galton‐Fenzi, Julius Garbe, Fabien Gillet‐Chaulet, Rupert Gladstone, Heiko Goelzer, Nicholas R. Golledge, Ralf Greve, G. Hilmar Gudmundsson, Holly Kyeore Han, Trevor R. Hillebrand, Matthew J. Hoffman, Philippe Huybrechts, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Ann Kristin Klose, Petra M. Langebroek, Gunter R. Leguy, William H. Lipscomb, Daniel P. Lowry, Pierre Mathiot, Marisa Montoya, Mathieu Morlighem, Sophie Nowicki, Frank Pattyn, Antony J. Payne, Tyler Pelle, Aurélien Quiquet, Alexander Robinson, Leopekka Saraste, Erika G. Simon, Sainan Sun, Jake P. Twarog, Luke D. Trusel, Benoit Urruty, Jonas Van Breedam, Roderik S. W. van de Wal, Chen Zhao, and Thomas Zwinger
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4069, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4069, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Antarctica holds enough ice to raise sea levels by many meters, but its future is uncertain. Warm ocean water melts ice shelves from below, letting inland ice flow faster into the sea. By 2300, Antarctica could add 0.6–4.4 m to sea levels. Our study identifies two key factors—how strongly shelves melt and how the ice responds. These explain much of the range, and refining them in models may improve future predictions.
Jonathan Wiskandt and Nicolas C. Jourdain
The Cryosphere, 19, 3253–3258, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-3253-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-3253-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In ocean models, submarine melt of ice shelves is parameterized based on the heat budget at the ice–ocean interface. The heat budget includes the ocean heat transport, the heat conducted into the ice, and the heat available for melting. Here we compare three different approaches to estimating the heat conduction into the ice. We show that the most used approximation is not the most accurate one: it overestimates the melt by up to 25 % compared to the more accurate approximations.
Cyrille Mosbeux, Peter Råback, Adrien Gilbert, Julien Brondex, Fabien Gillet-Chaulet, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Mondher Chekki, Olivier Gagliardini, and Gaël Durand
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3039, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3039, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Transport processes like rocks carried by ice flow and damage evolution – a proxy for crevasses – are key in ice sheet modeling and should occur without diffusion. Yet, standard numerical methods often blur these features. We explore a particle-based Semi-Lagrangian approach, comparing it to a Discontinuous Galerkin method, and show it can accurately simulate such transport when run at high enough resolution.
Claire K. Yung, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Alistair Adcroft, Christopher Y. S. Bull, Jan De Rydt, Michael S. Dinniman, Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Daniel Goldberg, David E. Gwyther, Robert Hallberg, Matthew Harrison, Tore Hattermann, David M. Holland, Denise Holland, Paul R. Holland, James R. Jordan, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Kazuya Kusahara, Gustavo Marques, Pierre Mathiot, Dimitris Menemenlis, Adele K. Morrison, Yoshihiro Nakayama, Olga Sergienko, Robin S. Smith, Alon Stern, Ralph Timmermann, and Qin Zhou
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1942, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1942, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
ISOMIP+ compares 12 ocean models that simulate ice-ocean interactions in a common, idealised, static ice shelf cavity setup, aiming to assess and understand inter-model variability. Models simulate similar basal melt rate patterns, ocean profiles and circulation but differ in ice-ocean boundary layer properties and spatial distributions of melting. Ice-ocean boundary layer representation is a key area for future work, as are realistic-domain ice sheet-ocean model intercomparisons.
David Storkey, Pierre Mathiot, Michael J. Bell, Dan Copsey, Catherine Guiavarc'h, Helene T. Hewitt, Jeff Ridley, and Malcolm J. Roberts
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 2725–2745, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2725-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2725-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Southern Ocean is a key region of the world ocean in the context of climate change studies. We show that the Met Office Hadley Centre coupled model with intermediate ocean resolution struggles to accurately simulate the Southern Ocean. Increasing the frictional drag that the seafloor exerts on ocean currents and introducing a representation of unresolved ocean eddies both appear to reduce the large-scale biases in this model.
Nicolas C. Jourdain, Charles Amory, Christoph Kittel, and Gaël Durand
The Cryosphere, 19, 1641–1674, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1641-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1641-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
A mixed statistical–physical approach is used to reproduce the behaviour of a regional climate model. From that, we estimate the contribution of snowfall and melting at the surface of the Antarctic Ice Sheet to changes in global mean sea level. We also investigate the impact of surface melting in a warmer climate on the stability of the Antarctic ice shelves that provide back stress on the ice flow to the ocean.
Justine Caillet, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Pierre Mathiot, Fabien Gillet-Chaulet, Benoit Urruty, Clara Burgard, Charles Amory, Mondher Chekki, and Christoph Kittel
Earth Syst. Dynam., 16, 293–315, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-293-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-293-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Internal climate variability, resulting from processes intrinsic to the climate system, modulates the Antarctic response to climate change by delaying or offsetting its effects. Using climate and ice-sheet models, we highlight that irreducible internal climate variability significantly enlarges the likely range of Antarctic contribution to sea-level rise until 2100. Thus, we recommend considering internal climate variability as a source of uncertainty for future ice-sheet projections.
Catherine Guiavarc'h, David Storkey, Adam T. Blaker, Ed Blockley, Alex Megann, Helene Hewitt, Michael J. Bell, Daley Calvert, Dan Copsey, Bablu Sinha, Sophia Moreton, Pierre Mathiot, and Bo An
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 377–403, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-377-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-377-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Ocean and Sea Ice configuration version 9 (GOSI9) is the new UK hierarchy of model configurations based on the Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean (NEMO) and available at three resolutions. It will be used for various applications, e.g. weather forecasting and climate prediction. It improves upon the previous version by reducing global temperature and salinity biases and enhancing the representation of Arctic sea ice and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
Jan De Rydt, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Yoshihiro Nakayama, Mathias van Caspel, Ralph Timmermann, Pierre Mathiot, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Hélène Seroussi, Pierre Dutrieux, Ben Galton-Fenzi, David Holland, and Ronja Reese
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7105–7139, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7105-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7105-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Global climate models do not reliably simulate sea-level change due to ice-sheet–ocean interactions. We propose a community modelling effort to conduct a series of well-defined experiments to compare models with observations and study how models respond to a range of perturbations in climate and ice-sheet geometry. The second Marine Ice Sheet–Ocean Model Intercomparison Project will continue to lay the groundwork for including ice-sheet–ocean interactions in global-scale IPCC-class models.
Hélène Seroussi, Vincent Verjans, Sophie Nowicki, Antony J. Payne, Heiko Goelzer, William H. Lipscomb, Ayako Abe-Ouchi, Cécile Agosta, Torsten Albrecht, Xylar Asay-Davis, Alice Barthel, Reinhard Calov, Richard Cullather, Christophe Dumas, Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Rupert Gladstone, Nicholas R. Golledge, Jonathan M. Gregory, Ralf Greve, Tore Hattermann, Matthew J. Hoffman, Angelika Humbert, Philippe Huybrechts, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Thomas Kleiner, Eric Larour, Gunter R. Leguy, Daniel P. Lowry, Chistopher M. Little, Mathieu Morlighem, Frank Pattyn, Tyler Pelle, Stephen F. Price, Aurélien Quiquet, Ronja Reese, Nicole-Jeanne Schlegel, Andrew Shepherd, Erika Simon, Robin S. Smith, Fiammetta Straneo, Sainan Sun, Luke D. Trusel, Jonas Van Breedam, Peter Van Katwyk, Roderik S. W. van de Wal, Ricarda Winkelmann, Chen Zhao, Tong Zhang, and Thomas Zwinger
The Cryosphere, 17, 5197–5217, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5197-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5197-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Mass loss from Antarctica is a key contributor to sea level rise over the 21st century, and the associated uncertainty dominates sea level projections. We highlight here the Antarctic glaciers showing the largest changes and quantify the main sources of uncertainty in their future evolution using an ensemble of ice flow models. We show that on top of Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers, Totten and Moscow University glaciers show rapid changes and a strong sensitivity to warmer ocean conditions.
Pierre Mathiot and Nicolas C. Jourdain
Ocean Sci., 19, 1595–1615, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1595-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1595-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
How much the Antarctic ice shelf basal melt rate can increase in response to global warming remains an open question. To achieve this, we compared an ocean simulation under present-day atmospheric condition to a one under late 23rd century atmospheric conditions. The ocean response to the perturbation includes a decrease in the production of cold dense water and an increased intrusion of warmer water onto the continental shelves. This induces a substantial increase in ice shelf basal melt rates.
Katherine Hutchinson, Julie Deshayes, Christian Éthé, Clément Rousset, Casimir de Lavergne, Martin Vancoppenolle, Nicolas C. Jourdain, and Pierre Mathiot
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3629–3650, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3629-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3629-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Bottom Water constitutes the lower half of the ocean’s overturning system and is primarily formed in the Weddell and Ross Sea in the Antarctic due to interactions between the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice and ice shelves. Here we use a global ocean 1° resolution model with explicit representation of the three large ice shelves important for the formation of the parent waters of Bottom Water. We find doing so reduces salt biases, improves water mass realism and gives realistic ice shelf melt rates.
Jeff Polton, James Harle, Jason Holt, Anna Katavouta, Dale Partridge, Jenny Jardine, Sarah Wakelin, Julia Rulent, Anthony Wise, Katherine Hutchinson, David Byrne, Diego Bruciaferri, Enda O'Dea, Michela De Dominicis, Pierre Mathiot, Andrew Coward, Andrew Yool, Julien Palmiéri, Gennadi Lessin, Claudia Gabriela Mayorga-Adame, Valérie Le Guennec, Alex Arnold, and Clément Rousset
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 1481–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1481-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1481-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The aim is to increase the capacity of the modelling community to respond to societally important questions that require ocean modelling. The concept of reproducibility for regional ocean modelling is developed: advocating methods for reproducible workflows and standardised methods of assessment. Then, targeting the NEMO framework, we give practical advice and worked examples, highlighting key considerations that will the expedite development cycle and upskill the user community.
Clara Burgard, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Ronja Reese, Adrian Jenkins, and Pierre Mathiot
The Cryosphere, 16, 4931–4975, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4931-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4931-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The ocean-induced melt at the base of the floating ice shelves around Antarctica is one of the largest uncertainty factors in the Antarctic contribution to future sea-level rise. We assess the performance of several existing parameterisations in simulating basal melt rates on a circum-Antarctic scale, using an ocean simulation resolving the cavities below the shelves as our reference. We find that the simple quadratic slope-independent and plume parameterisations yield the best compromise.
Antony Siahaan, Robin S. Smith, Paul R. Holland, Adrian Jenkins, Jonathan M. Gregory, Victoria Lee, Pierre Mathiot, Antony J. Payne, Jeff K. Ridley, and Colin G. Jones
The Cryosphere, 16, 4053–4086, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4053-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4053-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The UK Earth System Model is the first to fully include interactions of the atmosphere and ocean with the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Under the low-greenhouse-gas SSP1–1.9 (Shared Socioeconomic Pathway) scenario, the ice sheet remains stable over the 21st century. Under the strong-greenhouse-gas SSP5–8.5 scenario, the model predicts strong increases in melting of large ice shelves and snow accumulation on the surface. The dominance of accumulation leads to a sea level fall at the end of the century.
Christoph Kittel, Charles Amory, Stefan Hofer, Cécile Agosta, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Ella Gilbert, Louis Le Toumelin, Étienne Vignon, Hubert Gallée, and Xavier Fettweis
The Cryosphere, 16, 2655–2669, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2655-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2655-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Model projections suggest large differences in future Antarctic surface melting even for similar greenhouse gas scenarios and warming rates. We show that clouds containing a larger amount of liquid water lead to stronger melt. As surface melt can trigger the collapse of the ice shelves (the safety band of the Antarctic Ice Sheet), clouds could be a major source of uncertainties in projections of sea level rise.
Charles Pelletier, Thierry Fichefet, Hugues Goosse, Konstanze Haubner, Samuel Helsen, Pierre-Vincent Huot, Christoph Kittel, François Klein, Sébastien Le clec'h, Nicole P. M. van Lipzig, Sylvain Marchi, François Massonnet, Pierre Mathiot, Ehsan Moravveji, Eduardo Moreno-Chamarro, Pablo Ortega, Frank Pattyn, Niels Souverijns, Guillian Van Achter, Sam Vanden Broucke, Alexander Vanhulle, Deborah Verfaillie, and Lars Zipf
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 553–594, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-553-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-553-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present PARASO, a circumpolar model for simulating the Antarctic climate. PARASO features five distinct models, each covering different Earth system subcomponents (ice sheet, atmosphere, land, sea ice, ocean). In this technical article, we describe how this tool has been developed, with a focus on the
coupling interfacesrepresenting the feedbacks between the distinct models used for contribution. PARASO is stable and ready to use but is still characterized by significant biases.
Cited articles
Alley, K. E., Scambos, T. A., and Alley, R. B.: The role of channelized basal melt in ice-shelf stability: Recent progress and future priorities, Ann. Glaciol., 2019, 18–22, https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2023.5, 2023. a
Bassis, J. N., Crawford, A., Kachuck, S. B., Benn, D. I., Walker, C., Millstein, J., Duddu, R., Åström, J., Fricker, H. A., and Luckman, A.: Stability of Ice Shelves and Ice Cliffs in a Changing Climate, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 52, 221–247, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-122817, 2024. a
Bevan, S. L., Luckman, A. J., Benn, D. I., Adusumilli, S., and Crawford, A.: Brief communication: Thwaites Glacier cavity evolution, The Cryosphere, 15, 3317–3328, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3317-2021, 2021. a
Bronselaer, B., Winton, M., Griffies, S. M., Hurlin, W. J., Rodgers, K. B., Sergienko, O. V., Stouffer, R. J., and Russell, J. L.: Change in future climate due to Antarctic meltwater, Nature, 564, 53–58, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0712-z, 2018. a
Burchard, H., Bolding, K., Jenkins, A., Losch, M., Reinert, M., and Umlauf, L.: The Vertical Structure and Entrainment of Subglacial Melt Water Plumes, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 14, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021MS002925, 2022. a, b
Davis, P. E. and Nicholls, K. W.: Turbulence Observations Beneath Larsen C Ice Shelf, Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 5529–5550, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015164, 2019. a, b
Davis, P. E., Nicholls, K. W., Holland, D. M., Schmidt, B. E., Washam, P., Riverman, K. L., Arthern, R. J., Vaňková, I., Eayrs, C., Smith, J. A., Anker, P. G., Mullen, A. D., Dichek, D., Lawrence, J. D., Meister, M. M., Clyne, E., Basinski-Ferris, A., Rignot, E., Queste, B. Y., Boehme, L., Heywood, K. J., Anandakrishnan, S., and Makinson, K.: Suppressed basal melting in the eastern Thwaites Glacier grounding zone, Nature, 614, 479–485, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05586-0, 2023. a, b
Davison, B. J., Hogg, A. E., Gourmelen, N., Jakob, L., Wuite, J., Nagler, T., Greene, C. A., Andreasen, J., and Engdahl, M. E.: Annual mass budget of Antarctic ice shelves from 1997 to 2021, Science Advances, 9, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi0186, 2023. a, b
De Rydt, J. and Naughten, K.: Geometric amplification and suppression of ice-shelf basal melt in West Antarctica, The Cryosphere, 18, 1863–1888, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1863-2024, 2024. a
Depoorter, M. A., Bamber, J. L., Griggs, J. A., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Ligtenberg, S. R. M., van den Broeke, M. R., and Moholdt, G.: Calving fluxes and basal melt rates of Antarctic ice shelves, Nature, 502, 89–92, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12567, 2013. a
Donat-Magnin, M., Jourdain, N. C., Spence, P., Le Sommer, J., Gallée, H., and Durand, G.: Ice-Shelf Melt Response to Changing Winds and Glacier Dynamics in the Amundsen Sea Sector, Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 10206–10224, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC013059, 2017. a
Dutrieux, P., Stewart, C., Jenkins, A., Nicholls, K. W., Corr, H. F., Rignot, E., and Steffen, K.: Basal terraces on melting ice shelves, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 5506–5513, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL060618, 2014. a
Dutrieux, P., Jenkins, A., and Nicholls, K. W.: Ice-shelf basal morphology from an upward-looking multibeam system deployed from an autonomous underwater vehicle, Geol. Soc. Mem., 46, 219–220, https://doi.org/10.1144/M46.79, 2016. a
Edwards, T. L., Nowicki, S., Marzeion, B., Hock, R., Goelzer, H., Seroussi, H., Jourdain, N. C., Slater, D. A., Turner, F. E., Smith, C. J., McKenna, C. M., Simon, E., Abe-Ouchi, A., Gregory, J. M., Larour, E., Lipscomb, W. H., Payne, A. J., Shepherd, A., Agosta, C., Alexander, P., Albrecht, T., Anderson, B., Asay-Davis, X., Aschwanden, A., Barthel, A., Bliss, A., Calov, R., Chambers, C., Champollion, N., Choi, Y., Cullather, R., Cuzzone, J., Dumas, C., Felikson, D., Fettweis, X., Fujita, K., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Gladstone, R., Golledge, N. R., Greve, R., Hattermann, T., Hoffman, M. J., Humbert, A., Huss, M., Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, W., Kleiner, T., Kraaijenbrink, P., Le clec'h, S., Lee, V., Leguy, G. R., Little, C. M., Lowry, D. P., Malles, J. H., Martin, D. F., Maussion, F., Morlighem, M., O'Neill, J. F., Nias, I., Pattyn, F., Pelle, T., Price, S. F., Quiquet, A., Radić, V., Reese, R., Rounce, D. R., Rückamp, M., Sakai, A., Shafer, C., Schlegel, N. J., Shannon, S., Smith, R. S., Straneo, F., Sun, S., Tarasov, L., Trusel, L. D., Van Breedam, J., van de Wal, R., van den Broeke, M., Winkelmann, R., Zekollari, H., Zhao, C., Zhang, T., and Zwinger, T.: Projected land ice contributions to twenty-first-century sea level rise, Nature, 593, 74–82, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03302-y, 2021. a
Fürst, J. J., Durand, G., Gillet-Chaulet, F., Tavard, L., Rankl, M., Braun, M., and Gagliardini, O.: The safety band of Antarctic ice shelves, Nat. Clim. Change, 6, 479–482, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2912, 2016. a
Gourmelen, N., Goldberg, D. N., Snow, K., Henley, S. F., Bingham, R. G., Kimura, S., Hogg, A. E., Shepherd, A., Mouginot, J., Lenaerts, J. T., Ligtenberg, S. R., and van de Berg, W. J.: Channelized Melting Drives Thinning Under a Rapidly Melting Antarctic Ice Shelf, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 9796–9804, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074929, 2017. a
Gudmundsson, G. H., Paolo, F. S., Adusumilli, S., and Fricker, H. A.: Instantaneous Antarctic ice sheet mass loss driven by thinning ice shelves, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 13903–13909, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085027, 2019. a
Gwyther, D. E., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Dinniman, M. S., Roberts, J. L., and Hunter, J. R.: The effect of basal friction on melting and freezing in ice shelf-ocean models, Ocean Model., 95, 38–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2015.09.004, 2015. a
Gwyther, D. E., Kusahara, K., Asay-Davis, X. S., Dinniman, M. S., and Galton-Fenzi, B. K.: Vertical processes and resolution impact ice shelf basal melting: A multi-model study, Ocean Model., 147, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2020.101569, 2020. a, b, c
Holland, D. M. and Jenkins, A.: Modeling thermodynamic ice–ocean interactions at the base of an ice shelf, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 29, 1787–1800, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1999)029<1787:mtioia>2.0.co;2, 1999. a, b
Holland, P. R., Bevan, S. L., and Luckman, A. J.: Strong Ocean Melting Feedback During the Recent Retreat of Thwaites Glacier, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL103088, 2023. a
Howat, I., Porter, C., Noh, M.-J., Husby, E., Khuvis, S., Danish, E., Tomko, K., Gardiner, J., Negrete, A., Yadav, B., Klassen, J., Kelleher, C., Cloutier, M., Bakker, J., Enos, J., Arnold, G., Bauer, G., and Morin, P.: The Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica – Mosaics, Version 2, Harvard Dataverse, https://doi.org/10.7910/dvn/ebw8uc, 2022. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i
Hughes, K. G.: Pathways, form drag, and turbulence in simulations of an ocean flowing through an ice mélange, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, e2021JC018228, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC018228, 2022. a, b
Jenkins, A., Nicholls, K. W., and Corr, H. F.: Observation and Parameterization of Ablation at the Base of Ronne Ice Shelf, Antarctica, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 40, 2298–2312, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JPO4317.1, 2010. a, b
Jordan, J. R., Holland, P. R., Jenkins, A., Piggott, M. D., and Kimura, S.: Modeling ice–ocean interaction in ice-shelf crevasses, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119, 995–1008, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JC009208, 2014. a
Joughin, I., Smith, B. E., and Medley, B.: Marine Ice Sheet Collapse Potentially Under Way for the Thwaites Glacier Basin, West Antarctica, Science, 344, 735–738, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1249055, 2014. a
Joughin, I., Shapero, D., Dutrieux, P., and Smith, B.: Ocean-induced melt volume directly paces ice loss from Pine Island Glacier, Science Advances, 7, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abi5738, 2021. a
Jourdain, N. C. and Gallée, H.: Influence of the orographic roughness of glacier valleys across the Transantarctic Mountains in an atmospheric regional model, Clim. Dynam., 36, 1067–1081, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-010-0757-7, 2011. a
Jourdain, N. C., Mathiot, P., Merino, N., Durand, G., Le Sommer, J., Spence, P., Dutrieux, P., and Madec, G.: Ocean circulation and sea-ice thinning induced by melting ice shelves in the Amundsen Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 2550–2573, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012509, 2017. a, b
Jourdain, N. C., Mathiot, P., Burgard, C., Caillet, J., and Kittel, C.: Ice Shelf Basal Melt Rates in the Amundsen Sea at the End of the 21st Century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL100629, 2022. a, b
Kimura, S.: Oceanographic controls on the variability of ice-shelf basal melting and circulation of glacial meltwater in the Amundsen Sea Embayment, Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 10131–10155, 2017. a
Larter, R. D.: Basal Melting, Roughness and Structural Integrity of Ice Shelves, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, e2021GL097421, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL097421, 2022. a
Lettau, H.: Note on aerodynamic roughness-parameter estimation on the basis of roughness-element description, J. Appl. Meteorol., 8, 828–832, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0828:NOARPE>2.0.CO;2, 1969. a
Lhermitte, S., Sun, S., Shuman, C., Wouters, B., Pattyn, F., Wuite, J., Berthier, E., and Nagler, T.: Damage accelerates ice shelf instability and mass loss in Amundsen Sea Embayment, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 117, 24735–24741, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1912890117, 2020. a
Losch, M.: Modeling ice shelf cavities in a z coordinate ocean general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 113, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004368, 2008. a, b, c, d
Lott, F. and Miller, M. J.: A new subgrid-scale orographic drag parameterization: its formulation and testing, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 123, 101–127, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712353704, 1997. a
Lu, P., Li, Z., Cheng, B., and Leppäranta, M.: A parameterization of the ice–ocean drag coefficient, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 116, 7019, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006878, 2011. a, b
Madec, G., Bourdallé-Badie, R., Chanut, J., et al.: NEMO Ocean Engine, Zenodo, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6334656, 2022. a, b, c
Mason, P.: Boundary layer parameterization in heterogeneous terrain, in: ECMWF workshop proceedings on Fine-scale modelling and the development of parametrization schemes, https://www.ecmwf.int/sites/default/files/elibrary/1991/11011-boundary-layer-parametrization-heterogeneous-terrain.pdf (last access: 8 April 2026), 1991. a
Mathiot, P. and Jourdain, N. C.: Southern Ocean warming and Antarctic ice shelf melting in conditions plausible by late 23rd century in a high-end scenario, Ocean Sci., 19, 1595–1615, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1595-2023, 2023. a, b
Mathiot, P., Jenkins, A., Harris, C., and Madec, G.: Explicit representation and parametrised impacts of under ice shelf seas in the z∗ coordinate ocean model NEMO 3.6, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 2849–2874, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-2849-2017, 2017. a, b, c
McConnochie, C. D. and Kerr, R. C.: Testing a common ice–ocean parameterization with laboratory experiments, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 5905–5915, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC012918, 2017. a
McGrath, D., Steffen, K., Scambos, T., Rajaram, H., Casassa, G., and Rodriguez Lagos, J. L.: Basal crevasses and associated surface crevassing on the larsen c ice shelf, antarctica, and their role in ice-shelf instability, Ann. Glaciol., 53, 10–18, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012AoG60A005, 2012. a
McPhee, M. G.: Advances in understanding ice–ocean stress during and since AIDJEX, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 76-77, 24–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2011.05.001, 2012. a
McPhee, M. G., Maykut, G. A., and Morison, J. H.: Dynamics and thermodynamics of the ice/upper ocean system in the marginal ice zone of the Greenland Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 92, 7017–7031, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC092IC07P07017, 1987. a
McPhee, M. G., Morison, J. H., and Nilsen, F.: Revisiting heat and salt exchange at the ice–ocean interface: Ocean flux and modeling considerations, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 113, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004383, 2008. a
Miles, B. W. and Bingham, R. G.: Progressive unanchoring of Antarctic ice shelves since 1973, Nature, 626, 785–791, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07049-0, 2024. a
Miles, B. W., Stokes, C. R., Jenkins, A., Jordan, J. R., Jamieson, S. S., and Gudmundsson, G. H.: Intermittent structural weakening and acceleration of the Thwaites Glacier Tongue between 2000 and 2018, J. Glaciol., 66, 485–495, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2020.20, 2020. a
Morlighem, M., Rignot, E., Binder, T., Blankenship, D., Drews, R., Eagles, G., Eisen, O., Ferraccioli, F., Forsberg, R., Fretwell, P., Goel, V., Greenbaum, J. S., Gudmundsson, H., Guo, J., Helm, V., Hofstede, C., Howat, I., Humbert, A., Jokat, W., Karlsson, N. B., Lee, W. S., Matsuoka, K., Millan, R., Mouginot, J., Paden, J., Pattyn, F., Roberts, J., Rosier, S., Ruppel, A., Seroussi, H., Smith, E. C., Steinhage, D., Sun, B., den Broeke, M. R., Ommen, T. D., van Wessem, M., and Young, D. A.: Deep glacial troughs and stabilizing ridges unveiled beneath the margins of the Antarctic ice sheet, Nat. Geosci., 13, 132–137, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0510-8, 2019. a, b, c, d, e, f
Nakayama, Y., Manucharyan, G., Zhang, H., Dutrieux, P., Torres, H. S., Klein, P., Seroussi, H., Schodlok, M., Rignot, E., and Menemenlis, D.: Pathways of ocean heat towards Pine Island and Thwaites grounding lines, Sci. Rep., 9, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53190-6, 2019. a
Orheim, O., Hagen, J. O., Østerhus, S., and Sætrang, A. C.: Studies on, and underneath, the ice shelf Fimbulisen, Norsk Polarinstitutt Meddelelser, 113, 59–73, 1990. a
Paolo, F. S., Fricker, H. A., and Padman, L.: Volume loss from Antarctic ice shelves is accelerating, Science, 348, 327–331, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa0940, 2015. a
Patmore, R. D., Holland, P. R., Vreugdenhil, C. A., Jenkins, A., and Taylor, J. R.: Turbulence in the Ice Shelf–Ocean Boundary Current and Its Sensitivity to Model Resolution, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 53, 613–633, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-22-0034.1, 2023. a, b, c
Pegler, S. S.: Marine ice sheet dynamics: the impacts of ice-shelf buttressing, J. Fluid Mech., 857, 605–647, https://doi.org/10.1017/JFM.2018.741, 2018. a
Poinelli, M., Schodlok, M., Larour, E., Vizcaino, M., and Riva, R.: Can rifts alter ocean dynamics beneath ice shelves?, The Cryosphere, 17, 2261–2283, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2261-2023, 2023. a
Raupach, M. R., Antonia, R. A., and Rajagopalan, S.: Rough-Wall Turbulent Boundary Layers, Appl. Mech. Rev., 44, 1–25, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3119492, 1991. a
Reese, R., Gudmundsson, G. H., Levermann, A., and Winkelmann, R.: The far reach of ice-shelf thinning in Antarctica, Nat. Clim. Change, 8, 53–57, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-017-0020-x, 2018. a
Rosevear, M., Galton-Fenzi, B., and Stevens, C.: Evaluation of basal melting parameterisations using in situ ocean and melting observations from the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica, Ocean Sci., 18, 1109–1130, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1109-2022, 2022. a
Rosevear, M. G., Gayen, B., Vreugdenhil, C. A., and Galton-Fenzi, B. K.: How Does the Ocean Melt Antarctic Ice Shelves?, Ann. Rev., 17, 325–353, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-040323-074354, 2024. a
Schmidt, B. E., Washam, P., Davis, P. E., Nicholls, K. W., Holland, D. M., Lawrence, J. D., Riverman, K. L., Smith, J. A., Spears, A., Dichek, D. J., Mullen, A. D., Clyne, E., Yeager, B., Anker, P., Meister, M. R., Hurwitz, B. C., Quartini, E. S., Bryson, F. E., Basinski-Ferris, A., Thomas, C., Wake, J., Vaughan, D. G., Anandakrishnan, S., Rignot, E., Paden, J., and Makinson, K.: Heterogeneous melting near the Thwaites Glacier grounding line, Nature, 614, 471–478, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05691-0, 2023. a, b
Seroussi, H., Pelle, T., Lipscomb, W. H., Abe-Ouchi, A., Albrecht, T., Alvarez-Solas, J., Asay-Davis, X., Barre, J. B., Berends, C. J., Bernales, J., Blasco, J., Caillet, J., Chandler, D. M., Coulon, V., Cullather, R., Dumas, C., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Garbe, J., Gillet-Chaulet, F., Gladstone, R., Goelzer, H., Golledge, N., Greve, R., Gudmundsson, G. H., Han, H. K., Hillebrand, T. R., Hoffman, M. J., Huybrechts, P., Jourdain, N. C., Klose, A. K., Langebroek, P. M., Leguy, G. R., Lowry, D. P., Mathiot, P., Montoya, M., Morlighem, M., Nowicki, S., Pattyn, F., Payne, A. J., Quiquet, A., Reese, R., Robinson, A., Saraste, L., Simon, E. G., Sun, S., Twarog, J. P., Trusel, L. D., Urruty, B., Van Breedam, J., van de Wal, R. S., Wang, Y., Zhao, C., and Zwinger, T.: Evolution of the Antarctic Ice Sheet Over the Next Three Centuries From an ISMIP6 Model Ensemble, Earths Future, 12, e2024EF004561, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EF004561, 2024. a
Steiner, N.: Introduction of variable drag coefficients into sea-ice models, Ann. Glaciol., 33, 181–186, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756401781818149, 2001. a, b
Steiner, N., Harder, M., and Lemke, P.: Sea-ice roughness and drag coefficients in a dynamic-thermodynamic sea-ice model for the Arctic, Tellus A, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v51i5.14505, 1999. a
Sun, S., Pattyn, F., Simon, E. G., Albrecht, T., Cornford, S., Calov, R., Dumas, C., Gillet-Chaulet, F., Goelzer, H., Golledge, N. R., Greve, R., Hoffman, M. J., Humbert, A., Kazmierczak, E., Kleiner, T., Leguy, G. R., Lipscomb, W. H., Martin, D., Morlighem, M., Nowicki, S., Pollard, D., Price, S., Quiquet, A., Seroussi, H., Schlemm, T., Sutter, J., Van De Wal, R. S., Winkelmann, R., and Zhang, T.: Antarctic ice sheet response to sudden and sustained ice-shelf collapse (ABUMIP), J. Glaciol., 66, 891–904, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2020.67, 2020. a
Surawy-Stepney, T., Hogg, A. E., Cornford, S. L., and Davison, B. J.: Episodic dynamic change linked to damage on the thwaites glacier ice tongue, Nat. Geosci., https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-01097-9, 2023. a
Taylor, P. A.: Comments and further analysis on effective roughness lengths for use in numerical three-dimensional models, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 39, 403–418, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00125144, 1987. a
Tsamados, M., Feltham, D. L., Schroeder, D., Flocco, D., Farrell, S. L., Kurtz, N., Laxon, S. W., and Bacon, S.: Impact of Variable Atmospheric and Oceanic Form Drag on Simulations of Arctic Sea Ice, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 44, 1329–1353, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-13-0215.1, 2014. a, b
Tsujino, H., Urakawa, S., Nakano, H., Small, R. J., Kim, W. M., Yeager, S. G., Danabasoglu, G., Suzuki, T., Bamber, J. L., Bentsen, M., Böning, C. W., Bozec, A., Chassignet, E. P., Curchitser, E., Boeira Dias, F., Durack, P. J., Griffies, S. M., Harada, Y., Ilicak, M., Josey, S. A., Kobayashi, C., Kobayashi, S., Komuro, Y., Large, W. G., Le Sommer, J., Marsland, S. J., Masina, S., Scheinert, M., Tomita, H., Valdivieso, M., and Yamazaki, D.: JRA-55 based surface dataset for driving ocean–sea-ice models (JRA55-do), Ocean Model., 130, 79–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2018.07.002, 2018. a
Vallot, D., Jourdain, N., and Mathiot, P.: Dataset for Effects of subgrid-scale ice topography on the ice shelf basal melting simulated in NEMO-4.2.0, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19129813, 2026.
Vreugdenhil, C. A. and Taylor, J. R.: Stratification Effects in the Turbulent Boundary Layer beneath a Melting Ice Shelf: Insights from Resolved Large-Eddy Simulations, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 49, 1905–1925, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-18-0252.1, 2019. a, b
Wåhlin, A., Alley, K. E., Begeman, C., Hegrenæs, Ø., Yuan, X., Graham, A. G., Hogan, K., Davis, P. E., Dotto, T. S., Eayrs, C., Hall, R. A., Holland, D. M., Kim, T. W., Larter, R. D., Ling, L., Muto, A., Pettit, E. C., Schmidt, B. E., Snow, T., Stedt, F., Washam, P. M., Wahlgren, S., Wild, C., Wellner, J., Zheng, Y., and Heywood, K. J.: Swirls and scoops: Ice base melt revealed by multibeam imagery of an Antarctic ice shelf, Science Advances, 10, 31, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adn9188, 2024. a, b
Washam, P., Lawrence, J. D., Stevens, C. L., Hulbe, C. L., Horgan, H. J., Robinson, N. J., Stewart, C. L., Spears, A., Quartini, E., Hurwitz, B., Meister, M. R., Mullen, A. D., Dichek, D. J., Bryson, F., and Schmidt, B. E.: Direct observations of melting, freezing, and ocean circulation in an ice shelf basal crevasse, Science Advances, 9, eadi7638, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi7638, 2023. a
Watkins, R. H., Bassis, J. N., and Thouless, M. D.: Roughness of Ice Shelves Is Correlated With Basal Melt Rates, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL094743, 2021. a, b
Watkins, R. H., Bassis, J. N., Thouless, M. D., and Luckman, A.: High Basal Melt Rates and High Strain Rates Lead to More Fractured Ice, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 129, e2023JF007366, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JF007366, 2024. a
Wilson, M. F. J., O'Connell, B., Brown, C., Guinan, J. C., and Grehan, A. J.: Multiscale Terrain Analysis of Multibeam Bathymetry Data for Habitat Mapping on the Continental Slope, Mar. Geod., 30, 3–35, https://doi.org/10.1080/01490410701295962, 2007. a
Zhou, Q. and Hattermann, T.: Modeling ice shelf cavities in the unstructured-grid, Finite Volume Community Ocean Model: Implementation and effects of resolving small-scale topography, Ocean Model., 146, 101536, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2019.101536, 2020. a
Short summary
Some recent studies show that the topography at the base of an ice shelf has consequences for its interaction with the ocean. To describe friction velocity in the melt parameterisation, we use a drag coefficient dependent on the distance of the first wet cell to the ice and the basal topography rather than a fixed-tuned parameter. We find that it is less dependent on the choice of vertical resolution and, while providing similar total melt, it gives more weight to highly crevassed areas.
Some recent studies show that the topography at the base of an ice shelf has consequences for...
