Articles | Volume 10, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1075-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1075-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
23 May 2016
Research article |
| 23 May 2016
Mapping snow depth in alpine terrain with unmanned aerial systems (UASs): potential and limitations
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
Marc S. Adams
Austrian Research Centre for Forests (BFW), Innsbruck, Austria
Ruedi Bösch
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Andreas Stoffel
WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
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Elisabeth D. Hafner, Frank Techel, Silvan Leinss, and Yves Bühler
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The Cryosphere, 15, 615–632, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-615-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-615-2021, 2021
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Lucie A. Eberhard, Pascal Sirguey, Aubrey Miller, Mauro Marty, Konrad Schindler, Andreas Stoffel, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 15, 69–94, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-69-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-69-2021, 2021
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In spring 2018 in the alpine Dischma valley (Switzerland), we tested different industrial photogrammetric platforms for snow depth mapping. These platforms were high-resolution satellites, an airplane, unmanned aerial systems and a terrestrial system. Therefore, this study gives a general overview of the accuracy and precision of the different photogrammetric platforms available in space and on earth and their use for snow depth mapping.
Silvan Leinss, Raphael Wicki, Sämi Holenstein, Simone Baffelli, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 1783–1803, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1783-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1783-2020, 2020
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To assess snow avalanche mapping with radar satellites in Switzerland, we compare 2 m resolution TerraSAR-X images, 10 m resolution Sentinel-1 images, and optical 1.5 m resolution SPOT-6 images. We found that radar satellites provide a valuable option to map at least larger avalanches, though avalanches are mapped only partially. By combining multiple orbits and polarizations from S1, we achieved mapping results of quality almost comparable to single high-resolution TerraSAR-X images.
Benjamin Walter, Hendrik Huwald, Josué Gehring, Yves Bühler, and Michael Lehning
The Cryosphere, 14, 1779–1794, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1779-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1779-2020, 2020
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We applied a horizontally mounted low-cost precipitation radar to measure velocities, frequency of occurrence, travel distances and turbulence characteristics of blowing snow off a mountain ridge. Our analysis provides a first insight into the potential of radar measurements for determining blowing snow characteristics, improves our understanding of mountain ridge blowing snow events and serves as a valuable data basis for validating coupled numerical weather and snowpack simulations.
Yves Bühler, Elisabeth D. Hafner, Benjamin Zweifel, Mathias Zesiger, and Holger Heisig
The Cryosphere, 13, 3225–3238, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3225-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3225-2019, 2019
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We manually map 18 737 avalanche outlines based on SPOT6 optical satellite imagery acquired in January 2018. This is the most complete and accurate avalanche documentation of a large avalanche period covering a big part of the Swiss Alps. This unique dataset can be applied for the validation of other remote-sensing-based avalanche-mapping procedures and for updating avalanche databases to improve hazard maps.
Andrin Caviezel, Sophia E. Demmel, Adrian Ringenbach, Yves Bühler, Guang Lu, Marc Christen, Claire E. Dinneen, Lucie A. Eberhard, Daniel von Rickenbach, and Perry Bartelt
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 199–210, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-199-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-199-2019, 2019
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In rockfall hazard assessment, knowledge about the precise flight path of assumed boulders is vital for its accuracy. We present the full reconstruction of artificially induced rockfall events. The extracted information such as exact velocities, jump heights and lengths provide detailed insights into how rotating rocks interact with the ground. The information serves as future calibration of rockfall modelling tools with the goal of even more realistic modelling predictions.
Yves Bühler, Daniel von Rickenbach, Andreas Stoffel, Stefan Margreth, Lukas Stoffel, and Marc Christen
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 3235–3251, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-3235-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-3235-2018, 2018
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Coping with avalanche hazard has a long tradition in alpine countries. Hazard mapping has proven to be one of the most effective methods. In this paper we develop a new approach to automatically delineate avalanche release areas and connect them to state-of-the-art numerical avalanche simulations. This enables computer-based hazard indication mapping over large areas such as entire countries. This is of particular interest where hazard maps do not yet exist, such as in developing countries.
C. Mulsow, R. Kenner, Y. Bühler, A. Stoffel, and H.-G. Maas
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLII-2, 739–744, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-739-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-739-2018, 2018
Karolina Korzeniowska, Yves Bühler, Mauro Marty, and Oliver Korup
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1823–1836, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1823-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1823-2017, 2017
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In this study, we have focused on automatically detecting avalanches and classifying them into release zones, tracks, and run-out zones based on aerial imagery using an object-based image analysis (OBIA) approach. We compared the results with manually mapped avalanche polygons, and obtained a user’s accuracy of > 0.9 and a Cohen’s kappa of 0.79–0.85. Testing the method for a larger area of 226.3 km2, we estimated producer’s and user’s accuracies of 0.61 and 0.78, respectively.
Cesar Vera Valero, Nander Wever, Yves Bühler, Lukas Stoffel, Stefan Margreth, and Perry Bartelt
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 2303–2323, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-2303-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-2303-2016, 2016
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Simulating medium–small avalanches operationally on a mine service road allows avalanche hazard to be assessed on the mine transportation route. Using accurate data from the snow cover and the avalanche paths, the avalanche dynamic model developed can calculate the avalanche runout distances and snow volumes of the deposits. The model does not predict whether the avalanche is coming or not, but if it comes, the model will predict runout distances and mass of the deposits.
C. Vera Valero, Y. Bühler, and P. Bartelt
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-3-2883-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-3-2883-2015, 2015
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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Wet snow avalanches can initiate from large fracture slabs or small point releases. Point
release wet snow avalanches can reach dangerous proportions when they initiate on steep and long avalanche paths and entrain warm moist snow. In this paper we investigate the dynamics of point release wet snow avalanches by applying a numerical model to simulate documented case studies on high altitude slopes in the Chilean Andes. The model simulated correctly flow height, velocity and avalanche run out.
Y. Bühler, M. Marty, L. Egli, J. Veitinger, T. Jonas, P. Thee, and C. Ginzler
The Cryosphere, 9, 229–243, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-229-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-229-2015, 2015
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We are able to map snow depth over large areas ( > 100km2) using airborne digital photogrammetry. Digital photogrammetry is more economical than airborne Laser Scanning but slightly less accurate. Comparisons to independent snow depth measurements reveal an accuracy of about 30cm. Spatial continuous mapping of snow depth is a major step forward compared to point measurements usually applied today. Limitations are steep slopes (> 50°) and areas covered by trees and scrubs.
T. Grünewald, Y. Bühler, and M. Lehning
The Cryosphere, 8, 2381–2394, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2381-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2381-2014, 2014
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Elevation dependencies of snow depth are analysed based on snow depth maps obtained from airborne remote sensing. Elevation gradients are characterised by a specific shape: an increase of snow depth with elevation is followed by a distinct peak at a certain level and a decrease in the highest elevations. We attribute this shape to an increase of precipitation with altitude, which is modified by topographical-induced redistribution processes of the snow on the ground (wind, gravitation).
A. Aydin, Y. Bühler, M. Christen, and I. Gürer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 1145–1154, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-1145-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-1145-2014, 2014
Y. Bühler, S. Kumar, J. Veitinger, M. Christen, A. Stoffel, and Snehmani
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 1321–1335, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-13-1321-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-13-1321-2013, 2013
Julia Glaus, Katreen Wikstrom Jones, Perry Bartelt, Marc Christen, Lukas Stoffel, Johan Gaume, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 2399–2419, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2399-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2399-2025, 2025
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This study assesses RAMMS::EXTENDED's predictive power in estimating avalanche runout distances critical for mountain road safety. Leveraging meteorological data and sensitivity analyses, it offers meaningful predictions, aiding near real-time hazard assessments and future model refinement for improved decision-making.
Lotte de Vugt, Thomas Zieher, Barbara Schneider-Muntau, Frank Perzl, Marc Adams, and Martin Rutzinger
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2647, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2647, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences (NHESS).
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We performed an analysis on semi-automatically mapped shallow landslide scarps and forest cover in the Sellrain valley, Tyrol (Austria), to investigate how the morphology and topographic profiles of landslides are affected by the forest. The results show that landslides located in dense forest cover occurred on steeper slopes and were deeper than others. The results also show that the use of forest stand density parameters, such as tree spacing, enhanced the found differences in the study area.
Pia Ruttner, Annelies Voordendag, Thierry Hartmann, Julia Glaus, Andreas Wieser, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1315–1330, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1315-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1315-2025, 2025
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Snow depth variations caused by wind are an important factor in avalanche danger, but detailed and up-to-date information is rarely available. We propose a monitoring system, using lidar and optical sensors, to measure the snow depth distribution at high spatial and temporal resolution. First results show that we can quantify snow depth changes with an accuracy on the low decimeter level, or better, and can identify events such as avalanches or displacement of snow during periods of strong winds.
John Sykes, Pascal Haegeli, Roger Atkins, Patrick Mair, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1255–1292, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1255-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1255-2025, 2025
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We model the decision-making of professional ski guides and develop decision support tools to assist with determining appropriate terrain based on current conditions. Our approach compares a manually constructed Bayesian network with machine learning classification models. The models accurately capture the real-world decision-making outcomes in 85–93 % of cases. Our conclusions focus on strengths and weaknesses of each model and discuss ramifications for practical applications in ski guiding.
Jan Magnusson, Yves Bühler, Louis Quéno, Bertrand Cluzet, Giulia Mazzotti, Clare Webster, Rebecca Mott, and Tobias Jonas
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 703–717, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-703-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-703-2025, 2025
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In this study, we present a dataset for the Dischma catchment in eastern Switzerland, which represents a typical high-alpine watershed in the European Alps. Accurate monitoring and reliable forecasting of snow and water resources in such basins are crucial for a wide range of applications. Our dataset is valuable for improving physics-based snow, land surface, and hydrological models, with potential applications in similar high-alpine catchments.
Andrea Manconi, Yves Bühler, Andreas Stoffel, Johan Gaume, Qiaoping Zhang, and Valentyn Tolpekin
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3833–3839, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3833-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3833-2024, 2024
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Our research reveals the power of high-resolution satellite synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) imagery for slope deformation monitoring. Using ICEYE data over the Brienz/Brinzauls instability, we measured surface velocity and mapped the landslide event with unprecedented precision. This underscores the potential of satellite SAR for timely hazard assessment in remote regions and aiding disaster mitigation efforts effectively.
Jaeyoung Lim, Elisabeth Hafner, Florian Achermann, Rik Girod, David Rohr, Nicholas R. J. Lawrance, Yves Bühler, and Roland Siegwart
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2728, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2728, 2024
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As avalanches occur in remote and potentially dangerous locations, data relevant to avalanche monitoring is difficult to obtain. Uncrewed fixed-wing aerial vehicles are promising platforms for gathering aerial imagery to map avalanche activity over a large area. In this work, we present an unmanned aerial system (UAS) capable of autonomously navigating and mapping avalanches in steep mountainous terrain. We expect our work to enable efficient large-scale autonomous avalanche monitoring.
Elisabeth D. Hafner, Theodora Kontogianni, Rodrigo Caye Daudt, Lucien Oberson, Jan Dirk Wegner, Konrad Schindler, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 18, 3807–3823, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3807-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3807-2024, 2024
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For many safety-related applications such as road management, well-documented avalanches are important. To enlarge the information, webcams may be used. We propose supporting the mapping of avalanches from webcams with a machine learning model that interactively works together with the human. Relying on that model, there is a 90% saving of time compared to the "traditional" mapping. This gives a better base for safety-critical decisions and planning in avalanche-prone mountain regions.
Elisabeth D. Hafner, Frank Techel, Rodrigo Caye Daudt, Jan Dirk Wegner, Konrad Schindler, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 2895–2914, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-2895-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-2895-2023, 2023
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Oftentimes when objective measurements are not possible, human estimates are used instead. In our study, we investigate the reproducibility of human judgement for size estimates, the mappings of avalanches from oblique photographs and remotely sensed imagery. The variability that we found in those estimates is worth considering as it may influence results and should be kept in mind for several applications.
Leon J. Bührle, Mauro Marty, Lucie A. Eberhard, Andreas Stoffel, Elisabeth D. Hafner, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 17, 3383–3408, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3383-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3383-2023, 2023
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Information on the snow depth distribution is crucial for numerous applications in high-mountain regions. However, only specific measurements can accurately map the present variability of snow depths within complex terrain. In this study, we show the reliable processing of images from aeroplane to large (> 100 km2) detailed and accurate snow depth maps around Davos (CH). We use these maps to describe the existing snow depth distribution, other special features and potential applications.
Adrian Ringenbach, Peter Bebi, Perry Bartelt, Andreas Rigling, Marc Christen, Yves Bühler, Andreas Stoffel, and Andrin Caviezel
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 779–801, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-779-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-779-2023, 2023
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Swiss researchers carried out repeated rockfall experiments with rocks up to human sizes in a steep mountain forest. This study focuses mainly on the effects of the rock shape and lying deadwood. In forested areas, cubic-shaped rocks showed a longer mean runout distance than platy-shaped rocks. Deadwood especially reduced the runouts of these cubic rocks. The findings enrich standard practices in modern rockfall hazard zoning assessments and strongly urge the incorporation of rock shape effects.
Gregor Ortner, Michael Bründl, Chahan M. Kropf, Thomas Röösli, Yves Bühler, and David N. Bresch
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 2089–2110, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-2089-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-2089-2023, 2023
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This paper presents a new approach to assess avalanche risk on a large scale in mountainous regions. It combines a large-scale avalanche modeling method with a state-of-the-art probabilistic risk tool. Over 40 000 individual avalanches were simulated, and a building dataset with over 13 000 single buildings was investigated. With this new method, risk hotspots can be identified and surveyed. This enables current and future risk analysis to assist decision makers in risk reduction and adaptation.
Adrian Ringenbach, Peter Bebi, Perry Bartelt, Andreas Rigling, Marc Christen, Yves Bühler, Andreas Stoffel, and Andrin Caviezel
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 1303–1319, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1303-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1303-2022, 2022
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The presented automatic deadwood generator (ADG) allows us to consider deadwood in rockfall simulations in unprecedented detail. Besides three-dimensional fresh deadwood cones, we include old woody debris in rockfall simulations based on a higher compaction rate and lower energy absorption thresholds. Simulations including different deadwood states indicate that a 10-year-old deadwood pile has a higher protective capacity than a pre-storm forest stand.
John Sykes, Pascal Haegeli, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 3247–3270, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3247-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3247-2022, 2022
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Automated snow avalanche terrain mapping provides an efficient method for large-scale assessment of avalanche hazards, which informs risk management decisions for transportation and recreation. This research reduces the cost of developing avalanche terrain maps by using satellite imagery and open-source software as well as improving performance in forested terrain. The research relies on local expertise to evaluate accuracy, so the methods are broadly applicable in mountainous regions worldwide.
Elisabeth D. Hafner, Patrick Barton, Rodrigo Caye Daudt, Jan Dirk Wegner, Konrad Schindler, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 16, 3517–3530, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3517-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3517-2022, 2022
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Knowing where avalanches occur is very important information for several disciplines, for example avalanche warning, hazard zonation and risk management. Satellite imagery can provide such data systematically over large regions. In our work we propose a machine learning model to automate the time-consuming manual mapping. Additionally, we investigate expert agreement for manual avalanche mapping, showing that our network is equally as good as the experts in identifying avalanches.
Juha Lemmetyinen, Juval Cohen, Anna Kontu, Juho Vehviläinen, Henna-Reetta Hannula, Ioanna Merkouriadi, Stefan Scheiblauer, Helmut Rott, Thomas Nagler, Elisabeth Ripper, Kelly Elder, Hans-Peter Marshall, Reinhard Fromm, Marc Adams, Chris Derksen, Joshua King, Adriano Meta, Alex Coccia, Nick Rutter, Melody Sandells, Giovanni Macelloni, Emanuele Santi, Marion Leduc-Leballeur, Richard Essery, Cecile Menard, and Michael Kern
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 3915–3945, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3915-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3915-2022, 2022
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The manuscript describes airborne, dual-polarised X and Ku band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data collected over several campaigns over snow-covered terrain in Finland, Austria and Canada. Colocated snow and meteorological observations are also presented. The data are meant for science users interested in investigating X/Ku band radar signatures from natural environments in winter conditions.
Aubrey Miller, Pascal Sirguey, Simon Morris, Perry Bartelt, Nicolas Cullen, Todd Redpath, Kevin Thompson, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2673–2701, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2673-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2673-2022, 2022
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Natural hazard modelers simulate mass movements to better anticipate the risk to people and infrastructure. These simulations require accurate digital elevation models. We test the sensitivity of a well-established snow avalanche model (RAMMS) to the source and spatial resolution of the elevation model. We find key differences in the digital representation of terrain greatly affect the simulated avalanche results, with implications for hazard planning.
Adrian Ringenbach, Elia Stihl, Yves Bühler, Peter Bebi, Perry Bartelt, Andreas Rigling, Marc Christen, Guang Lu, Andreas Stoffel, Martin Kistler, Sandro Degonda, Kevin Simmler, Daniel Mader, and Andrin Caviezel
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2433–2443, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2433-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2433-2022, 2022
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Forests have a recognized braking effect on rockfalls. The impact of lying deadwood, however, is mainly neglected. We conducted 1 : 1-scale rockfall experiments in three different states of a spruce forest to fill this knowledge gap: the original forest, the forest including lying deadwood and the cleared area. The deposition points clearly show that deadwood has a protective effect. We reproduced those experimental results numerically, considering three-dimensional cones to be deadwood.
Yves Bühler, Peter Bebi, Marc Christen, Stefan Margreth, Lukas Stoffel, Andreas Stoffel, Christoph Marty, Gregor Schmucki, Andrin Caviezel, Roderick Kühne, Stephan Wohlwend, and Perry Bartelt
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1825–1843, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1825-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1825-2022, 2022
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To calculate and visualize the potential avalanche hazard, we develop a method that automatically and efficiently pinpoints avalanche starting zones and simulate their runout for the entire canton of Grisons. The maps produced in this way highlight areas that could be endangered by avalanches and are extremely useful in multiple applications for the cantonal authorities, including the planning of new infrastructure, making alpine regions more safe.
Animesh K. Gain, Yves Bühler, Pascal Haegeli, Daniela Molinari, Mario Parise, David J. Peres, Joaquim G. Pinto, Kai Schröter, Ricardo M. Trigo, María Carmen Llasat, and Heidi Kreibich
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 985–993, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-985-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-985-2022, 2022
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To mark the 20th anniversary of Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences (NHESS), an interdisciplinary and international journal dedicated to the public discussion and open-access publication of high-quality studies and original research on natural hazards and their consequences, we highlight 11 key publications covering major subject areas of NHESS that stood out within the past 20 years.
Natalie Brožová, Tommaso Baggio, Vincenzo D'Agostino, Yves Bühler, and Peter Bebi
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3539–3562, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-3539-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-3539-2021, 2021
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Surface roughness plays a great role in natural hazard processes but is not always well implemented in natural hazard modelling. The results of our study show how surface roughness can be useful in representing vegetation and ground structures, which are currently underrated. By including surface roughness in natural hazard modelling, we could better illustrate the processes and thus improve hazard mapping, which is crucial for infrastructure and settlement planning in mountainous areas.
Nora Helbig, Michael Schirmer, Jan Magnusson, Flavia Mäder, Alec van Herwijnen, Louis Quéno, Yves Bühler, Jeff S. Deems, and Simon Gascoin
The Cryosphere, 15, 4607–4624, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4607-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4607-2021, 2021
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The snow cover spatial variability in mountains changes considerably over the course of a snow season. In applications such as weather, climate and hydrological predictions the fractional snow-covered area is therefore an essential parameter characterizing how much of the ground surface in a grid cell is currently covered by snow. We present a seasonal algorithm and a spatiotemporal evaluation suggesting that the algorithm can be applied in other geographic regions by any snow model application.
Elisabeth D. Hafner, Frank Techel, Silvan Leinss, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 15, 983–1004, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-983-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-983-2021, 2021
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Satellites prove to be very valuable for documentation of large-scale avalanche periods. To test reliability and completeness, which has not been satisfactorily verified before, we attempt a full validation of avalanches mapped from two optical sensors and one radar sensor. Our results demonstrate the reliability of high-spatial-resolution optical data for avalanche mapping, the suitability of radar for mapping of larger avalanches and the unsuitability of medium-spatial-resolution optical data.
Nora Helbig, Yves Bühler, Lucie Eberhard, César Deschamps-Berger, Simon Gascoin, Marie Dumont, Jesus Revuelto, Jeff S. Deems, and Tobias Jonas
The Cryosphere, 15, 615–632, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-615-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-615-2021, 2021
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The spatial variability in snow depth in mountains is driven by interactions between topography, wind, precipitation and radiation. In applications such as weather, climate and hydrological predictions, this is accounted for by the fractional snow-covered area describing the fraction of the ground surface covered by snow. We developed a new description for model grid cell sizes larger than 200 m. An evaluation suggests that the description performs similarly well in most geographical regions.
Lucie A. Eberhard, Pascal Sirguey, Aubrey Miller, Mauro Marty, Konrad Schindler, Andreas Stoffel, and Yves Bühler
The Cryosphere, 15, 69–94, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-69-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-69-2021, 2021
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In spring 2018 in the alpine Dischma valley (Switzerland), we tested different industrial photogrammetric platforms for snow depth mapping. These platforms were high-resolution satellites, an airplane, unmanned aerial systems and a terrestrial system. Therefore, this study gives a general overview of the accuracy and precision of the different photogrammetric platforms available in space and on earth and their use for snow depth mapping.
Silvan Leinss, Raphael Wicki, Sämi Holenstein, Simone Baffelli, and Yves Bühler
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 1783–1803, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1783-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1783-2020, 2020
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To assess snow avalanche mapping with radar satellites in Switzerland, we compare 2 m resolution TerraSAR-X images, 10 m resolution Sentinel-1 images, and optical 1.5 m resolution SPOT-6 images. We found that radar satellites provide a valuable option to map at least larger avalanches, though avalanches are mapped only partially. By combining multiple orbits and polarizations from S1, we achieved mapping results of quality almost comparable to single high-resolution TerraSAR-X images.
Benjamin Walter, Hendrik Huwald, Josué Gehring, Yves Bühler, and Michael Lehning
The Cryosphere, 14, 1779–1794, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1779-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1779-2020, 2020
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We applied a horizontally mounted low-cost precipitation radar to measure velocities, frequency of occurrence, travel distances and turbulence characteristics of blowing snow off a mountain ridge. Our analysis provides a first insight into the potential of radar measurements for determining blowing snow characteristics, improves our understanding of mountain ridge blowing snow events and serves as a valuable data basis for validating coupled numerical weather and snowpack simulations.
Yves Bühler, Elisabeth D. Hafner, Benjamin Zweifel, Mathias Zesiger, and Holger Heisig
The Cryosphere, 13, 3225–3238, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3225-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3225-2019, 2019
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We manually map 18 737 avalanche outlines based on SPOT6 optical satellite imagery acquired in January 2018. This is the most complete and accurate avalanche documentation of a large avalanche period covering a big part of the Swiss Alps. This unique dataset can be applied for the validation of other remote-sensing-based avalanche-mapping procedures and for updating avalanche databases to improve hazard maps.
R. Boesch and C. Graf
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLII-2-W13, 215–219, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W13-215-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W13-215-2019, 2019
Andrin Caviezel, Sophia E. Demmel, Adrian Ringenbach, Yves Bühler, Guang Lu, Marc Christen, Claire E. Dinneen, Lucie A. Eberhard, Daniel von Rickenbach, and Perry Bartelt
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 199–210, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-199-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-199-2019, 2019
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In rockfall hazard assessment, knowledge about the precise flight path of assumed boulders is vital for its accuracy. We present the full reconstruction of artificially induced rockfall events. The extracted information such as exact velocities, jump heights and lengths provide detailed insights into how rotating rocks interact with the ground. The information serves as future calibration of rockfall modelling tools with the goal of even more realistic modelling predictions.
Yves Bühler, Daniel von Rickenbach, Andreas Stoffel, Stefan Margreth, Lukas Stoffel, and Marc Christen
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 3235–3251, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-3235-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-3235-2018, 2018
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Coping with avalanche hazard has a long tradition in alpine countries. Hazard mapping has proven to be one of the most effective methods. In this paper we develop a new approach to automatically delineate avalanche release areas and connect them to state-of-the-art numerical avalanche simulations. This enables computer-based hazard indication mapping over large areas such as entire countries. This is of particular interest where hazard maps do not yet exist, such as in developing countries.
C. Mulsow, R. Kenner, Y. Bühler, A. Stoffel, and H.-G. Maas
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLII-2, 739–744, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-739-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-739-2018, 2018
M. S. Adams, T. Gigele, and R. Fromm
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLII-4-W4, 537–540, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W4-537-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W4-537-2017, 2017
Karolina Korzeniowska, Yves Bühler, Mauro Marty, and Oliver Korup
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1823–1836, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1823-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1823-2017, 2017
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In this study, we have focused on automatically detecting avalanches and classifying them into release zones, tracks, and run-out zones based on aerial imagery using an object-based image analysis (OBIA) approach. We compared the results with manually mapped avalanche polygons, and obtained a user’s accuracy of > 0.9 and a Cohen’s kappa of 0.79–0.85. Testing the method for a larger area of 226.3 km2, we estimated producer’s and user’s accuracies of 0.61 and 0.78, respectively.
R. Boesch
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLII-2-W6, 41–46, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W6-41-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W6-41-2017, 2017
Cesar Vera Valero, Nander Wever, Yves Bühler, Lukas Stoffel, Stefan Margreth, and Perry Bartelt
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 2303–2323, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-2303-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-2303-2016, 2016
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Simulating medium–small avalanches operationally on a mine service road allows avalanche hazard to be assessed on the mine transportation route. Using accurate data from the snow cover and the avalanche paths, the avalanche dynamic model developed can calculate the avalanche runout distances and snow volumes of the deposits. The model does not predict whether the avalanche is coming or not, but if it comes, the model will predict runout distances and mass of the deposits.
R. Boesch, Y. Bühler, M. Marty, and C. Ginzler
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLI-B8, 453–458, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLI-B8-453-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLI-B8-453-2016, 2016
M. S. Adams, R. Fromm, and V. Lechner
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLI-B1, 749–755, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLI-B1-749-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLI-B1-749-2016, 2016
C. Vera Valero, Y. Bühler, and P. Bartelt
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-3-2883-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-3-2883-2015, 2015
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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Wet snow avalanches can initiate from large fracture slabs or small point releases. Point
release wet snow avalanches can reach dangerous proportions when they initiate on steep and long avalanche paths and entrain warm moist snow. In this paper we investigate the dynamics of point release wet snow avalanches by applying a numerical model to simulate documented case studies on high altitude slopes in the Chilean Andes. The model simulated correctly flow height, velocity and avalanche run out.
Y. Bühler, M. Marty, L. Egli, J. Veitinger, T. Jonas, P. Thee, and C. Ginzler
The Cryosphere, 9, 229–243, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-229-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-229-2015, 2015
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We are able to map snow depth over large areas ( > 100km2) using airborne digital photogrammetry. Digital photogrammetry is more economical than airborne Laser Scanning but slightly less accurate. Comparisons to independent snow depth measurements reveal an accuracy of about 30cm. Spatial continuous mapping of snow depth is a major step forward compared to point measurements usually applied today. Limitations are steep slopes (> 50°) and areas covered by trees and scrubs.
T. Grünewald, Y. Bühler, and M. Lehning
The Cryosphere, 8, 2381–2394, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2381-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2381-2014, 2014
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Elevation dependencies of snow depth are analysed based on snow depth maps obtained from airborne remote sensing. Elevation gradients are characterised by a specific shape: an increase of snow depth with elevation is followed by a distinct peak at a certain level and a decrease in the highest elevations. We attribute this shape to an increase of precipitation with altitude, which is modified by topographical-induced redistribution processes of the snow on the ground (wind, gravitation).
A. Aydin, Y. Bühler, M. Christen, and I. Gürer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 1145–1154, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-1145-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-1145-2014, 2014
Y. Bühler, S. Kumar, J. Veitinger, M. Christen, A. Stoffel, and Snehmani
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 1321–1335, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-13-1321-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-13-1321-2013, 2013
Related subject area
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AWI-ICENet1: a convolutional neural network retracker for ice altimetry
Julien Meloche, Nicolas R. Leroux, Benoit Montpetit, Vincent Vionnet, and Chris Derksen
The Cryosphere, 19, 2949–2962, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2949-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2949-2025, 2025
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Measuring snow mass from radar measurements is possible with information on snow and a radar model to link the measurements to snow. A key variable in a retrieval is the number of snow layers, with more layers yielding richer information but at increased computational cost. Here, we show the capabilities of a new method for simplifying a complex snowpack while preserving the scattering behavior of the snowpack and conserving its mass.
Maya Raghunath Suryawanshi, Malcolm McMillan, Jennifer Maddalena, Fanny Piras, Jérémie Aublanc, Jean-Alexis Daguzé, Clara Grau, and Qi Huang
The Cryosphere, 19, 2855–2880, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2855-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2855-2025, 2025
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Increasing melting rates of the polar ice sheets are contributing more and more to sea level rise. Due to the remoteness and expanse of ice sheets, these changes are mainly observed using satellites. However, the accuracy of these measurements depends on the processing of these datasets. Here we use advanced algorithms to provide improved historical ice sheet elevation measurements, derived from satellite altimeters flying between 1991 and 2012, which will benefit cryospheric applications.
James W. Dillon, Christopher P. Donahue, Evan N. Schehrer, and Kevin D. Hammonds
The Cryosphere, 19, 2913–2933, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2913-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2913-2025, 2025
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The optical grain size of snow controls albedo, playing a key role in Earth's energy balance. This parameter varies substantially in time and space; thus, accurate estimates are vital. Reflectance measurements can be used to map grain size, although results differ considerably, depending on the algorithm and model used during retrieval. We perform a novel laboratory comparison to determine the optimal model, shape parameters, and retrieval algorithm for accurately estimating grain size.
Diego Cusicanqui, Pascal Lacroix, Xavier Bodin, Benjamin Aubrey Robson, Andreas Kääb, and Shelley MacDonell
The Cryosphere, 19, 2559–2581, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2559-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2559-2025, 2025
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This study presents a robust methodological approach to detect and analyse rock glacier kinematics using Landsat 7/Landsat 8 imagery. In the semiarid Andes, 382 landforms were monitored, showing an average velocity of 0.37 ± 0.07 m yr⁻¹ over 24 years, with rock glaciers moving 23 % faster. Results demonstrate the feasibility of using medium-resolution optical imagery, combined with radar interferometry, to monitor rock glacier kinematics with widely available satellite datasets.
Edward H. Bair, Dar A. Roberts, David R. Thompson, Philip G. Brodrick, Brenton A. Wilder, Niklas Bohn, Christopher J. Crawford, Nimrod Carmon, Carrie M. Vuyovich, and Jeff Dozier
The Cryosphere, 19, 2315–2320, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2315-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2315-2025, 2025
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Key to the success of future satellite missions is understanding snowmelt in our warming climate, as this has implications for nearly 2 billion people. An obstacle is that an artifact, called the hook, is often mistaken for soot or dust. Instead, it is caused by three amplifying effects: (1) background reflectance that is too dark, (2) an assumption of level terrain, and (3) differences in optical constants of ice. Sensor calibration and directional effects may also contribute. Solutions are presented.
Kennedy A. Lange, Alice C. Bradley, Kyle Duncan, and Sinéad L. Farrell
The Cryosphere, 19, 2045–2065, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2045-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2045-2025, 2025
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Grounded sea ice ridges stabilize nearshore sea ice by anchoring it in the seafloor. In this study, we develop a method to identify grounded ridges in satellite data and measure the height, depth, distance from shore, and width of a thousand ridges across the Alaska Arctic, finding regional differences in these metrics across the coastline. This method lays the groundwork for a better understanding of nearshore ice stability, holding importance for Arctic community food security and safety.
Natalya Ross, Pietro Milillo, Kalyana Nakshatrala, Roberto Ballarini, Aaron Stubblefield, and Luigi Dini
The Cryosphere, 19, 1995–2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1995-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1995-2025, 2025
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Analyzing remote sensing radar data over three Antarctic glaciers, we observe short-term grounding line migrations. We simulate this phenomenon using viscous and viscoelastic continuum mechanics models. We quantify the sensitivity of the grounding zone width to bedrock slope, glacier thickness, and ice flow speed. Comparisons of the models’ predictions with the observations highlight the necessity of including ice elasticity in non-Newtonian models of glacier ice.
Haorui Sun, Yiwen Fang, Steven A. Margulis, Colleen Mortimer, Lawrence Mudryk, and Chris Derksen
The Cryosphere, 19, 2017–2036, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2017-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2017-2025, 2025
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The European Space Agency's Snow Climate Change Initiative (Snow CCI) developed a high-quality snow cover extent and snow water equivalent (SWE) climate data record. However, gaps exist in complex terrain due to challenges in using passive microwave sensing and in situ measurements. This study presents a methodology to fill the mountain SWE gap using Snow CCI snow cover fraction within a Bayesian SWE reanalysis framework, with potential applications in untested regions and with other sensors.
Marnie B. Bryant, Adrian A. Borsa, Eric J. Anderson, Claire C. Masteller, Roger J. Michaelides, Matthew R. Siegfried, and Adam P. Young
The Cryosphere, 19, 1825–1847, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1825-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1825-2025, 2025
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We measure shoreline change across a 7 km stretch of coastline on the Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast between 2019 and 2022 using multispectral imagery from Planet and satellite altimetry from ICESat-2. We find that shoreline change rates are high and variable and that different shoreline types show distinct patterns of change in shoreline position and topography. We discuss how the observed changes may be driven by both time-varying ocean and air conditions and spatial variations in morphology.
Maiju Ylönen, Hannu Marttila, Anton Kuzmin, Pasi Korpelainen, Timo Kumpula, and Pertti Ala-Aho
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1297, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1297, 2025
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We collected snow depth maps four times during the winter from two different sites and used them as input for a model to predict daily snow depth and snow water equivalent (SWE). Our results show similar snow depth patterns in different sites, where snow depths are the highest in forests and forest gaps and the lowest in open areas. The results can extend operational snow course measurements and their temporal and spatial coverage, helping hydrological forecasting and water resource management.
Shiyi Li, Lanqing Huang, Philipp Bernhard, and Irena Hajnsek
The Cryosphere, 19, 1621–1639, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1621-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1621-2025, 2025
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This work presents an improved method for seasonal wet snow mapping in Karakoram using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data and topographic data. This method enables robust wet snow classification in complex mountainous terrain. Large-scale wet snow maps were generated using the proposed method, covering three major water basins in Karakoram over 4 years (2017–2021). Crucial snow variables were further derived from the maps and provided valuable insights on regional snow melting dynamics.
Andrew O. Hoffman, Knut Christianson, Ching-Yao Lai, Ian Joughin, Nicholas Holschuh, Elizabeth Case, Jonathan Kingslake, and the GHOST science team
The Cryosphere, 19, 1353–1372, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1353-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1353-2025, 2025
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We use satellite and ice-penetrating radar technology to segment crevasses in the Amundsen Sea Embayment. Inspection of satellite time series reveals inland expansion of crevasses where surface stresses have increased. We develop a simple model for the strength of densifying snow and show that these crevasses are likely restricted to the near surface. This result bridges discrepancies between satellite and lab experiments and reveals the importance of porosity on surface crevasse formation.
Francesca Carletti, Carlo Marin, Chiara Ghielmini, Mathias Bavay, and Michael Lehning
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-974, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-974, 2025
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This work presents the first high-resolution dataset of wet snow properties for satellite applications. With it, we validate links between Sentinel-1 backscattering and snowmelt stages, and investigate scattering mechanisms through a radiative transfer model. We disclose the influence of liquid water content and surface roughness at different melting stages and address future challenges, such as capturing large-scale scattering mechanisms and enhancing radiative transfer modules for wet snow.
Niklas Bohn, Edward H. Bair, Philip G. Brodrick, Nimrod Carmon, Robert O. Green, Thomas H. Painter, and David R. Thompson
The Cryosphere, 19, 1279–1302, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1279-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1279-2025, 2025
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A new type of Earth-observing satellite is measuring reflected sunlight in all its colors. These measurements can be used to characterize snow properties, which give us important information about climate change. In our work, we emphasize the difficulties of obtaining these properties from rough mountainous regions and present a solution to the problem. Our research was inspired by the growing number of new satellite technologies and the increasing challenges associated with climate change.
Kirk M. Scanlan, Anja Rutishauser, and Sebastian B. Simonsen
The Cryosphere, 19, 1221–1239, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1221-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1221-2025, 2025
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An ice sheet's surface modulates its response to climate change, and it is therefore critical to monitor how it evolves through time. Here, we investigate novel measurements of Greenland surface roughness based on the strength of reflected local airborne and pan-Greenland satellite radar signals. These measurements respond to roughness at scales typically larger than those considered in mass balance modelling while highlighting the scale dependency of surface roughness that is often overlooked.
Polona Itkin
The Cryosphere, 19, 1135–1151, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1135-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1135-2025, 2025
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Radar satellite images of sea ice were analyzed to understand how sea ice moves and deforms. These data are noisy, especially when looking at small details. A method was developed to filter out the noise. The filtered data were used to monitor how ice plates stretch and compress over time, revealing slow healing of ice fractures. Cohesive clusters of ice plates that move together were studied too. These methods provide climate-relevant insights into the dynamic nature of winter sea ice cover.
Barbara Widhalm, Annett Bartsch, Tazio Strozzi, Nina Jones, Artem Khomutov, Elena Babkina, Marina Leibman, Rustam Khairullin, Mathias Göckede, Helena Bergstedt, Clemens von Baeckmann, and Xaver Muri
The Cryosphere, 19, 1103–1133, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1103-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1103-2025, 2025
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Mapping soil moisture in Arctic permafrost regions is crucial for various activities, but it is challenging with typical satellite methods due to the landscape's diversity. Seasonal freezing and thawing cause the ground to periodically rise and subside. Our research demonstrates that this seasonal ground settlement, measured with Sentinel-1 satellite data, is larger in areas with wetter soils. This method helps to monitor permafrost degradation.
Andreas J. Dietz and Sebastian Roessler
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-382, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-382, 2025
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The "Global SnowPack" product of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) contains binary information about the presence or absence of snow on a global scale since the year 2000. Now incorporating new input datasets, it was possible to increase the spatial resolution to 370 m. The detailed accuracy assessment proves the feasibility of the applied methods to remove data gaps caused by clouds and polar darkness.
Robert Ricker, Thomas Lavergne, Stefan Hendricks, Stephan Paul, Emily Down, Mari Anne Killie, and Marion Bocquet
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-359, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-359, 2025
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We developed a new method to map Arctic sea ice thickness daily using satellite measurements. We address a problem similar to motion blur in photography. Traditional methods collect satellite data over one month to get a full picture of Arctic sea ice thickness. But like in photos of moving objects, long exposure leads to motion blur, making it difficult to identify certain features in the sea ice maps. Our method corrects for this motion blur, providing a sharper view of the evolving sea ice.
Annett Bartsch, Xaver Muri, Markus Hetzenecker, Kimmo Rautiainen, Helena Bergstedt, Jan Wuite, Thomas Nagler, and Dmitry Nicolsky
The Cryosphere, 19, 459–483, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-459-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-459-2025, 2025
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We developed a robust freeze–thaw detection approach, applying a constant threshold to Copernicus Sentinel-1 data that is suitable for tundra regions. All global, coarser-resolution products, tested with the resulting benchmarking dataset, are of value for freeze–thaw retrieval, although differences were found depending on the seasons, particularly during the spring and autumn transition.
Monojit Saha, Julienne Stroeve, Dustin Isleifson, John Yackel, Vishnu Nandan, Jack Christopher Landy, and Hoi Ming Lam
The Cryosphere, 19, 325–346, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-325-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-325-2025, 2025
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Snow on sea ice is vital for near-shore sea ice geophysical and biological processes. Past studies have measured snow depths using the satellite altimeters Cryosat-2 and ICESat-2 (Cryo2Ice), but estimating sea surface height from leadless landfast sea ice remains challenging. Snow depths from Cryo2Ice are compared to in situ data after adjusting for tides. Realistic snow depths are retrieved, but differences in roughness, satellite footprints, and snow geophysical properties are identified.
Enrico Mattea, Etienne Berthier, Amaury Dehecq, Tobias Bolch, Atanu Bhattacharya, Sajid Ghuffar, Martina Barandun, and Martin Hoelzle
The Cryosphere, 19, 219–247, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-219-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-219-2025, 2025
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We reconstruct the evolution of terminus position, ice thickness, and surface flow velocity of the reference Abramov glacier (Kyrgyzstan) from 1968 to present. We describe a front pulsation in the early 2000s and the multi-annual present-day buildup of a new pulsation. Such dynamic instabilities can challenge the representativity of Abramov as a reference glacier. For our work we used satellite‑based optical remote sensing from multiple platforms, including recently declassified archives.
Laurane Charrier, Amaury Dehecq, Lei Guo, Fanny Brun, Romain Millan, Nathan Lioret, Luke Copland, Nathan Maier, Christine Dow, and Paul Halas
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3409, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3409, 2025
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While global annual glacier velocities are openly accessible, sub-annual velocity time series are still lacking. This hinders our ability to understand flow processes and the integration of these observations in numerical models. We introduce an open source Python package called TICOI to fuses multi-temporal and multi-sensor image-pair velocities produced by different processing chains to produce standardized sub-annual velocity products.
Christopher Horvat, Ellen M. Buckley, and Madelyn Stewart
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3864, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3864, 2025
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Since the late 1970s, standard methods for observing sea ice area from satellite contrast its passive microwave emissions to that of the ocean. Since 2018, a new satellite, ICESat-2, may offer a unique and independent way to sample sea ice area at high skill and resolution, using laser altimetry. We develop a new product of sea ice area for the Arctic using ICESat-2 and constrain the biases associated with the use of altimetry instead of passive microwave emissions.
Juliette Ortet, Arnaud Mialon, Alain Royer, Mike Schwank, Manu Holmberg, Kimmo Rautiainen, Simone Bircher-Adrot, Andreas Colliander, Yann Kerr, and Alexandre Roy
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3963, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3963, 2025
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We propose a new method to determine the ground surface temperature under the snowpack in the Arctic area from satellite observations. The obtained ground temperatures time series were evaluated over 21 reference sites in Northern Alaska and compared with ground temperatures obtained with global models. The method is excessively promising for monitoring ground temperature below the snowpack and studying the spatiotemporal variability thanks to 15 years of observations over the whole Arctic area.
Larysa Istomina, Hannah Niehaus, and Gunnar Spreen
The Cryosphere, 19, 83–105, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-83-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-83-2025, 2025
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Melt water puddles, or melt ponds on top of the Arctic sea ice, are a good measure of the Arctic climate state. In the context of recent climate warming, the Arctic has warmed about 4 times faster than the rest of the world, and a long-term dataset of the melt pond fraction is needed to be able to model the future development of the Arctic climate. We present such a dataset, produce 2002–2023 trends and highlight a potential melt regime shift with drastic regional trends of + 20 % per decade.
Weiran Li, Sanne B. M. Veldhuijsen, and Stef Lhermitte
The Cryosphere, 19, 37–61, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-37-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-37-2025, 2025
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This study used a machine learning approach to estimate the densities over the Antarctic Ice Sheet, particularly in the areas where the snow is usually dry. The motivation is to establish a link between satellite parameters to snow densities, as measurements are difficult for people to take on site. It provides valuable insights into the complexities of the relationship between satellite parameters and firn density and provides potential for further studies.
Sonia Dupuis, Frank-Michael Göttsche, and Stefan Wunderle
The Cryosphere, 18, 6027–6059, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-6027-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-6027-2024, 2024
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The Arctic has experienced pronounced warming the last few decades. This warming threatens ecosystems, vegetation dynamics, snow cover duration, and permafrost. Traditional monitoring methods like stations and climate models lack the detail needed. Land surface temperature (LST) data derived from satellites offer high spatial and temporal coverage, perfect for studying changes in the Arctic. In particular, LST information from AVHRR provides a 40-year record, valuable for analysing trends.
Imke Sievers, Henriette Skourup, and Till A. S. Rasmussen
The Cryosphere, 18, 5985–6004, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5985-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5985-2024, 2024
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To derive sea ice thickness (SIT) from satellite freeboard (FB) observations, assumptions about snow thickness, snow density, sea ice density and water density are needed. These parameters are impossible to observe alongside FB, so many existing products use empirical values. In this study, modeled values are used instead. The modeled values and otherwise commonly used empirical values are evaluated against in situ observations. In a further analysis, the influence on SIT is quantified.
Karl Kortum, Suman Singha, and Gunnar Spreen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3351, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3351, 2024
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Improved sea ice observations are essential to understanding the processes that lead to the strong warming effect currently being observed in the Arctic. In this work, we combine complementary satellite measurement techniques and find remarkable correlations between the two observations. This allows us to expand the coverage of ice topography measurements to a scope and resolution that could not previously be observed.
Ellen M. Buckley, Christopher Horvat, and Pittayuth Yoosiri
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3861, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3861, 2024
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Sea ice coverage is a key indicator of changes in polar and global climate. There is a long (40+ year) record of sea ice concentration and area from passive microwave measurements. In this work we show the biases in these data based on high resolution imagery. We also suggest the use of ICESat-2, a high resolution satellite laser, that can supplement the passive microwave estimates.
Aman KC, Ellyn M. Enderlin, Dominik Fahrner, Twila Moon, and Dustin Carroll
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3543, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3543, 2024
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The sum of ice flowing towards a glacier’s terminus and changes in the position of the terminus over time collectively make up terminus ablation. We found that terminus ablation has more seasonal variability than previously estimated from flux-based estimates of ice discharge. The findings are of importance in understanding timing and location of the freshwater input to the fjords, and surrounding ocean basins affecting local and regional ecosystems and ocean properties.
Etienne Berthier, Jérôme Lebreton, Delphine Fontannaz, Steven Hosford, Joaquín Muñoz-Cobo Belart, Fanny Brun, Liss M. Andreassen, Brian Menounos, and Charlotte Blondel
The Cryosphere, 18, 5551–5571, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5551-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5551-2024, 2024
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Repeat elevation measurements are crucial for monitoring glacier health and to understand how glaciers affect river flows and sea level. Until recently, high-resolution elevation data were mostly available for polar regions and High Mountain Asia. Our project, the Pléiades Glacier Observatory, now provides high-resolution topographies of 140 glacier sites worldwide. This is a novel and open dataset to monitor the impact of climate change on glaciers at high resolution and accuracy.
Cas Renette, Mats Olvmo, Sofia Thorsson, Björn Holmer, and Heather Reese
The Cryosphere, 18, 5465–5480, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5465-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5465-2024, 2024
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We used a drone to monitor seasonal changes in the height of subarctic permafrost mounds (palsas). With five drone flights in 1 year, we found a seasonal fluctuation of ca. 15 cm as a result of freeze–thaw cycles. On one mound, a large area sank down between each flight as a result of permafrost thaw. The approach of using repeated high-resolution scans from such a drone is unique for such environments and highlights its effectiveness in capturing the subtle dynamics of permafrost landscapes.
Zachary Hoppinen, Ross T. Palomaki, George Brencher, Devon Dunmire, Eric Gagliano, Adrian Marziliano, Jack Tarricone, and Hans-Peter Marshall
The Cryosphere, 18, 5407–5430, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5407-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5407-2024, 2024
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This study uses radar imagery from the Sentinel-1 satellite to derive snow depth from increases in the returning energy. These retrieved depths are then compared to nine lidar-derived snow depths across the western United State to assess the ability of this technique to be used to monitor global snow distributions. We also qualitatively compare the changes in underlying Sentinel-1 amplitudes against both the total lidar snow depths and nine automated snow monitoring stations.
Tore Wulf, Jørgen Buus-Hinkler, Suman Singha, Hoyeon Shi, and Matilde Brandt Kreiner
The Cryosphere, 18, 5277–5300, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5277-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5277-2024, 2024
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Here, we present ASIP: a new and comprehensive deep-learning-based methodology to retrieve high-resolution sea ice concentration with accompanying well-calibrated uncertainties from satellite-based active and passive microwave observations at a pan-Arctic scale for all seasons. In a comparative study against pan-Arctic ice charts and well-established passive-microwave-based sea ice products, we show that ASIP generalizes well to the pan-Arctic region.
Deniz Tobias Gök, Dirk Scherler, and Hendrik Wulf
The Cryosphere, 18, 5259–5276, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5259-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5259-2024, 2024
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We derived Landsat Collection 2 land surface temperature (LST) trends in the Swiss Alps using a harmonic model with a linear trend. Validation with LST data from 119 high-altitude weather stations yielded robust results, but Landsat LST trends are biased due to unstable acquisition times. The bias varies with topographic slope and aspect. We discuss its origin and propose a simple correction method in relation to modeled changes in shortwave radiation.
Philipp Sebastian Arndt and Helen Amanda Fricker
The Cryosphere, 18, 5173–5206, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5173-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5173-2024, 2024
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We develop a method for ice-sheet-scale retrieval of supraglacial meltwater depths using ICESat-2 photon data. We report results for two drainage basins in Greenland and Antarctica during two contrasting melt seasons, where our method reveals a total of 1249 lake segments up to 25 m deep. The large volume and wide variety of accurate depth data that our method provides enable the development of data-driven models of meltwater volumes in satellite imagery.
Weiran Li, Stef Lhermitte, Bert Wouters, Cornelis Slobbe, Max Brils, and Xavier Fettweis
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3251, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3251, 2024
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Due to the melt events in recent decades, the snow condition over Greenland has been changed. To observe this, we use a parameter (leading edge width; LeW) derived from satellite altimetry, and analyse its spatial and temporal variations. By comparing the LeW variations with modelled firn parameters, we concluded that the 2012 melt event has a long-lasting impact on the volume scattering of Greenland firn. This impact cannot fully recover due to the recent and more frequent melt events.
Alexander Störmer, Timo Kumpula, Miguel Villoslada, Pasi Korpelainen, Henning Schumacher, and Benjamin Burkhard
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2862, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2862, 2024
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Snow has a major impact on palsa development, yet understanding its distribution at small scale remains limited. We used LiDAR UAS and ground truth data in combination with machine learning to model snow distribution at three palsa sites. We identified extremes in snow depth corresponding to palsa topography, providing insights into the influence of snow distribution on their formation. The results demonstrate the applicability of machine learning for modeling snow distribution at a small scale.
Brenton A. Wilder, Joachim Meyer, Josh Enterkine, and Nancy F. Glenn
The Cryosphere, 18, 5015–5029, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5015-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5015-2024, 2024
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Remotely sensed properties of snow are dependent on accurate terrain information, which for a lot of the cryosphere and seasonal snow zones is often insufficient in accuracy. However, as we show in this paper, we can bypass this issue by optimally solving for the terrain by utilizing the raw radiance data returned to the sensor. This method performed well when compared to validation datasets and has the potential to be used across a variety of different snow climates.
Benjamin J. Wallis, Anna E. Hogg, Yikai Zhu, and Andrew Hooper
The Cryosphere, 18, 4723–4742, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4723-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4723-2024, 2024
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The grounding line, where ice begins to float, is an essential variable to understand ice dynamics, but in some locations it can be challenging to measure with established techniques. Using satellite data and a new method, Wallis et al. measure the grounding line position of glaciers and ice shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula and find retreats of up to 16.3 km have occurred since the last time measurements were made in the 1990s.
Clemens von Baeckmann, Annett Bartsch, Helena Bergstedt, Aleksandra Efimova, Barbara Widhalm, Dorothee Ehrich, Timo Kumpula, Alexander Sokolov, and Svetlana Abdulmanova
The Cryosphere, 18, 4703–4722, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4703-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4703-2024, 2024
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Lakes are common features in Arctic permafrost areas. Land cover change following their drainage needs to be monitored since it has implications for ecology and the carbon cycle. Satellite data are key in this context. We compared a common vegetation index approach with a novel land-cover-monitoring scheme. Land cover information provides specific information on wetland features. We also showed that the bioclimatic gradients play a significant role after drainage within the first 10 years.
Jack C. Landy, Claude de Rijke-Thomas, Carmen Nab, Isobel Lawrence, Isolde A. Glissenaar, Robbie D. C. Mallett, Renée M. Fredensborg Hansen, Alek Petty, Michel Tsamados, Amy R. Macfarlane, and Anne Braakmann-Folgmann
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2904, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2904, 2024
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In this study we use three satellites to test the planned remote sensing approach of the upcoming mission CRISTAL over sea ice: that its dual radars will accurately measure the heights of the top and base of snow sitting atop floating sea ice floes. Our results suggest that CRISTAL's dual radars won’t necessarily measure the snow top and base under all conditions. We find that accurate height measurements depend much more on surface roughness than on snow properties, as is commonly assumed.
Renée M. Fredensborg Hansen, Henriette Skourup, Eero Rinne, Arttu Jutila, Isobel R. Lawrence, Andrew Shepherd, Knut V. Høyland, Jilu Li, Fernando Rodriguez-Morales, Sebastian B. Simonsen, Jeremy Wilkinson, Gaelle Veyssiere, Donghui Yi, René Forsberg, and Taniâ G. D. Casal
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2854, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2854, 2024
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In December 2022, an airborne campaign collected unprecedented coincident multi-frequency radar and lidar data over sea ice along a CryoSat-2 and ICESat-2 (CRYO2ICE) orbit in the Weddell Sea useful for evaluating microwave penetration. We found limited snow penetration at Ka- and Ku-bands, with significant contributions from the air-snow interface, contradicting traditional assumptions. These findings challenge current methods for comparing air- and spaceborne altimeter estimates of sea ice.
Zhimeng Zhang, Shannon Brown, and Andreas Colliander
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2578, 2024
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Retrieving accurate water vapor and temperature profiles over land is challenging due to uncertainties in estimating surface emissions. To address this, we've developed an iterative method that combines atmospheric retrieval with surface emissions estimation. Using ATMS data across various microwave frequencies, we successfully tracked atmospheric temperature and humidity changes. Testing against Radiosonde data showed our method is efficient and accurate, especially in detecting melting events.
Nils Risse, Mario Mech, Catherine Prigent, Gunnar Spreen, and Susanne Crewell
The Cryosphere, 18, 4137–4163, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4137-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4137-2024, 2024
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Passive microwave observations from satellites are crucial for monitoring Arctic sea ice and atmosphere. To do this effectively, it is important to understand how sea ice emits microwaves. Through unique Arctic sea ice observations, we improved our understanding, identified four distinct emission types, and expanded current knowledge to include higher frequencies. These findings will enhance our ability to monitor the Arctic climate and provide valuable information for new satellite missions.
Filippo Emilio Scarsi, Alessandro Battaglia, Maximilian Maahn, and Stef Lhermitte
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1917, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1917, 2024
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Snowfall measurements at high latitudes are crucial for estimating ice sheet mass balance. Spaceborne radar and radiometer missions help estimate snowfall but face uncertainties. This work evaluates uncertainties in snowfall estimates from a fixed near-nadir radar (CloudSat-like) and a conically scanning radar (WIVERN-like), determining that WIVERN will provide much better estimates than CloudSat, and at much smaller spatial and temporal scales.
Melody Sandells, Nick Rutter, Kirsty Wivell, Richard Essery, Stuart Fox, Chawn Harlow, Ghislain Picard, Alexandre Roy, Alain Royer, and Peter Toose
The Cryosphere, 18, 3971–3990, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3971-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3971-2024, 2024
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Satellite microwave observations are used for weather forecasting. In Arctic regions this is complicated by natural emission from snow. By simulating airborne observations from in situ measurements of snow, this study shows how snow properties affect the signal within the atmosphere. Fresh snowfall between flights changed airborne measurements. Good knowledge of snow layering and structure can be used to account for the effects of snow and could unlock these data to improve forecasts.
Veit Helm, Alireza Dehghanpour, Ronny Hänsch, Erik Loebel, Martin Horwath, and Angelika Humbert
The Cryosphere, 18, 3933–3970, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3933-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3933-2024, 2024
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We present a new approach (AWI-ICENet1), based on a deep convolutional neural network, for analysing satellite radar altimeter measurements to accurately determine the surface height of ice sheets. Surface height estimates obtained with AWI-ICENet1 (along with related products, such as ice sheet height change and volume change) show improved and unbiased results compared to other products. This is important for the long-term monitoring of ice sheet mass loss and its impact on sea level rise.
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Short summary
We map the distribution of snow depth at two alpine test sites with unmanned aerial system (UAS) data by applying structure-from-motion photogrammetry. In comparison with manual snow depth measurements, we find high accuracies of 7 to 15 cm for the snow depth values. We can prove that photogrammetric measurements on snow-covered terrain are possible. Underlaying vegetation such as bushes and grass leads to an underestimation of snow depth in the range of 10 to 50 cm.
We map the distribution of snow depth at two alpine test sites with unmanned aerial system (UAS)...
