Articles | Volume 19, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6261-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6261-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
27 Nov 2025
Research article |
| 27 Nov 2025
| 27 Nov 2025
Surface nuclear magnetic resonance for studying an englacial channel on Rhonegletscher (Switzerland): possibilities and limitations in a high-noise environment
Laura Gabriel
Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), bâtiment ALPOLE, Sion, Switzerland
Marian Hertrich
Institute of Geophysics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Christophe Ogier
Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), bâtiment ALPOLE, Sion, Switzerland
Mike Müller-Petke
Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics, Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany
Raphael Moser
Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), bâtiment ALPOLE, Sion, Switzerland
Hansruedi Maurer
Institute of Geophysics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Daniel Farinotti
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), bâtiment ALPOLE, Sion, Switzerland
Related authors
No articles found.
Valentin Samuel Gischig, Antonio Pio Rinaldi, Andres Alcolea, Falko Bethman, Marco Broccardo, Kai Bröker, Raymi Castilla, Federico Ciardo, Victor Clasen Repollés, Virginie Durand, Nima Gholizadeh Doonechaly, Marian Hertrich, Rebecca Hochreutener, Philipp Kästli, Dimitrios Karvounis, Xiaodong Ma, Men-Andrin Meier, Peter Meier, Maria Mesimeri, Arnaud Mignan, Anne Obermann, Katrin Plenkers, Martina Rosskopf, Francisco Serbeto, Paul Selvadurai, Alexis Shakas, Linus Villiger, Quinn Wenning, Alba Zappone, Jordan Aaron, Hansruedi Maurer, Domenico Giardini, and Stefan Wiemer
Solid Earth, 16, 1153–1180, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-1153-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-1153-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Induced earthquakes present a major obstacle for developing geoenergy resources. These occur during hydraulic stimulations that enhance fluid pathways in the rock. In the Bedretto Underground Laboratory, hydraulic stimulations are investigated in a downscaled manner. A workflow to analyze the hazard posed by induced earthquakes is applied at different stages of the test program. The hazard estimates illustrate the difficulty in reducing the uncertainty due to the variable seismogenic responses.
Tom Schaber, Mohammedreza Jalali, Alberto Ceccato, Alba Simona Zappone, Giacomo Pozzi, Valentin Gischig, Marian Hertrich, Men-Andrin Meier, Timo Seemann, Hannes Claes, Yves Guglielmi, Domenico Giardini, Stefan Wiemer, Massimo Cocco, and Florian Amann
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4733, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4733, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Solid Earth (SE).
Short summary
Short summary
We studied a deep fault zone in Switzerland to gain a better understanding of how water moves through rocks and how this affects earthquake activity. Using field and laboratory tests, we found that water flow is strongly controlled by open fractures and changes significantly with scale. Small samples underestimate flow compared to larger tests. Our results show that faults are highly variable, highlighting the need for site-specific studies when assessing risks or planning experiments.
Bastien Ruols, Johanna Klahold, Daniel Farinotti, and James Irving
The Cryosphere, 19, 4045–4059, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-4045-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-4045-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate the use of a drone-based ground-penetrating radar (GPR) system to gather high-resolution, high-density 4D data over a near-terminus glacier collapse feature. We monitor the growth of an air cavity and the evolution of the subglacial drainage system, providing insights into the dynamics of the collapse event. This work highlights potential future applications of drone-based GPR for monitoring glaciers, in particular in regions which are inaccessible by surface-based methods.
Ian Delaney, Andrew J. Tedstone, Mauro A. Werder, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 19, 2779–2795, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2779-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2779-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Sediment transport capacity depends on water velocity and channel width. In rivers, water discharge changes affect flow depth, width, and velocity. Yet, under glaciers, discharge variations alter velocity more than channel shape. Due to these differences, this study shows that sediment transport capacity under glaciers varies widely and peaks before water flow, creating a complex relationship. Understanding these dynamics helps interpret sediment discharge from glaciers in different climates.
Janek Greskowiak, Rena Meyer, Jairo Cueto, Nico Skibbe, Anja Reckhardt, Thomas Günther, Stephan Ludger Seibert, Kai Schwalfenberg, Dietmar Pommerin, Mike Müller-Petke, and Gudrun Massmann
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3132, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3132, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Mixing of fresh groundwater and circulating seawater below beaches triggers water-rock chemical reactions and may affect coastal water quality. The subsurface of so-called high-energy beaches that are exposed to high tides, waves and storm floods are understudied as monitoring under these conditions is difficult. For the first time, this study quantifies the subsurface flow and mixing processes of a high-energy beach with the help of computer simulations based on an extensive set of field data.
Aaron Cremona, Matthias Huss, Johannes Marian Landmann, Mauro Marty, Marijn van der Meer, Christian Ginzler, and Daniel Farinotti
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2929, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2929, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Our study provides daily mass balance estimates for every Swiss glacier from 2010–2024 using modelling, remote sensing observations, and machine learning. Over the period, Swiss glaciers lost nearly a quarter of their ice volume. The approach enables investigating the spatio-temporal variability of glacier mass balance in relation to the driving climatic factors.
Jane Walden, Mylène Jacquemart, Bretwood Higman, Romain Hugonnet, Andrea Manconi, and Daniel Farinotti
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 2045–2073, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2045-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2045-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We studied eight glacier-adjacent landslides in Alaska and found that slope movement increased at four sites as the glacier retreated past the landslide area. Movement at other sites may be due to heavy precipitation or increased glacier thinning, and two sites showed little to no motion. We suggest that landslides near waterbodies may be especially vulnerable to acceleration, which we guess is due to faster retreat rates of water-terminating glaciers and changing water flow in the slope.
Kathrin Behnen, Marian Hertrich, Hansruedi Maurer, Alexis Shakas, Kai Bröker, Claire Epiney, María Blanch Jover, and Domenico Giardini
Solid Earth, 16, 333–350, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-333-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-333-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Several cross-hole seismic surveys in the undisturbed Rotondo granite are used to analyze the seismic anisotropy in the Bedretto Lab, Switzerland. The P and S1 waves show a clear trend of faster velocities in the NE–SW direction and slower velocities perpendicular to it, indicating a tilted transverse isotropic velocity model. The symmetry plane is mostly aligned with the direction of maximum stress, but also the orientation of fractures is expected to influence the velocities.
Kaian Shahateet, Johannes J. Fürst, Francisco Navarro, Thorsten Seehaus, Daniel Farinotti, and Matthias Braun
The Cryosphere, 19, 1577–1597, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1577-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1577-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In the present work, we provide a new ice thickness reconstruction of the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet north of 70º S using inversion modeling. This model consists of two steps: the first uses basic assumptions of the rheology of the glacier, and the second uses mass conservation to improve the reconstruction where the assumptions made previously are expected to fail. Validation with independent data showed that our reconstruction improved compared to other reconstructions that are available.
Marit van Tiel, Matthias Huss, Massimiliano Zappa, Tobias Jonas, and Daniel Farinotti
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-404, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-404, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The summer of 2022 was extremely warm and dry in Europe, severely impacting water availability. We calculated water balance anomalies for 88 glacierized catchments in Switzerland, showing that glaciers played a crucial role in alleviating the drought situation by melting at record rates, partially compensating for the lack of rain and snowmelt. By comparing 2022 with past extreme years, we show that while glacier meltwater remains essential during droughts, its contribution is declining.
Miriam Larissa Schwarz, Hansruedi Maurer, Anne Christine Obermann, Paul Antony Selvadurai, Alexis Shakas, Stefan Wiemer, and Domenico Giardini
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1094, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1094, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study applied fat ray travel time tomography to image the geothermal testbed at the BedrettoLab. An active seismic crosshole survey provided a dataset of 42'843 manually picked first breaks. The complex major fault zone was successfully imaged by a 3D velocity model and validated with wireline logs and geological observations. Seismic events from hydraulic stimulation correlated with velocity structures, "avoiding" very high and low velocities, speculatively due to stress gradients.
Marijn van der Meer, Harry Zekollari, Matthias Huss, Jordi Bolibar, Kamilla Hauknes Sjursen, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 19, 805–826, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-805-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-805-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Glacier retreat poses big challenges, making understanding how climate affects glaciers vital. But glacier measurements worldwide are limited. We created a simple machine-learning model called miniML-MB, which estimates annual changes in glacier mass in the Swiss Alps. As input, miniML-MB uses two climate variables: average temperature (May–Aug) and total precipitation (Oct–Feb). Our model can accurately predict glacier mass from 1961 to 2021 but struggles for extreme years (2022 and 2023).
Alexandra von der Esch, Matthias Huss, Marit van Tiel, Justine Berg, and Daniel Farinotti
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3965, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3965, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Glaciers are vital water sources, especially in alpine regions. Using the Glacier Evolution Runoff Model (GERM), we examined how forcing data and model resolution impact glacio-hydrological model results. We find that precipitation biases greatly affect results, and coarse resolutions miss critical small-scale details. This highlights the trade-offs between computational efficiency and model accuracy, emphasizing the need for high-resolution data and precise calibration for reliable predictions.
Harry Zekollari, Matthias Huss, Lilian Schuster, Fabien Maussion, David R. Rounce, Rodrigo Aguayo, Nicolas Champollion, Loris Compagno, Romain Hugonnet, Ben Marzeion, Seyedhamidreza Mojtabavi, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 18, 5045–5066, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5045-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5045-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Glaciers are major contributors to sea-level rise and act as key water resources. Here, we model the global evolution of glaciers under the latest generation of climate scenarios. We show that the type of observations used for model calibration can strongly affect the projections at the local scale. Our newly projected 21st century global mass loss is higher than the current community estimate as reported in the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report.
Lander Van Tricht, Harry Zekollari, Matthias Huss, Daniel Farinotti, and Philippe Huybrechts
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2023-87, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2023-87, 2023
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
Detailed 3D models can be applied for well-studied glaciers, whereas simplified approaches are used for regional/global assessments. We conducted a comparison of six Tien Shan glaciers employing different models and investigated the impact of in-situ measurements. Our results reveal that the choice of mass balance and ice flow model as well as calibration have minimal impact on the projected volume. The initial ice thickness exerts the greatest influence on the future remaining ice volume.
Aaron Cremona, Matthias Huss, Johannes Marian Landmann, Joël Borner, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 17, 1895–1912, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1895-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1895-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Summer heat waves have a substantial impact on glacier melt as emphasized by the extreme summer of 2022. This study presents a novel approach for detecting extreme glacier melt events at the regional scale based on the combination of automatically retrieved point mass balance observations and modelling approaches. The in-depth analysis of summer 2022 evidences the strong correspondence between heat waves and extreme melt events and demonstrates their significance for seasonal melt.
Fabian Walter, Elias Hodel, Erik S. Mannerfelt, Kristen Cook, Michael Dietze, Livia Estermann, Michaela Wenner, Daniel Farinotti, Martin Fengler, Lukas Hammerschmidt, Flavia Hänsli, Jacob Hirschberg, Brian McArdell, and Peter Molnar
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 4011–4018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Debris flows are dangerous sediment–water mixtures in steep terrain. Their formation takes place in poorly accessible terrain where instrumentation cannot be installed. Here we propose to monitor such source terrain with an autonomous drone for mapping sediments which were left behind by debris flows or may contribute to future events. Short flight intervals elucidate changes of such sediments, providing important information for landscape evolution and the likelihood of future debris flows.
Erik Schytt Mannerfelt, Amaury Dehecq, Romain Hugonnet, Elias Hodel, Matthias Huss, Andreas Bauder, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 16, 3249–3268, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3249-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3249-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
How glaciers have responded to climate change over the last 20 years is well-known, but earlier data are much more scarce. We change this in Switzerland by using 22 000 photographs taken from mountain tops between the world wars and find a halving of Swiss glacier volume since 1931. This was done through new automated processing techniques that we created. The data are interesting for more than just glaciers, such as mapping forest changes, landslides, and human impacts on the terrain.
Lea Geibel, Matthias Huss, Claudia Kurzböck, Elias Hodel, Andreas Bauder, and Daniel Farinotti
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 3293–3312, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3293-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3293-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Glacier monitoring in Switzerland started in the 19th century, providing exceptional data series documenting snow accumulation and ice melt. Raw point observations of surface mass balance have, however, never been systematically compiled so far, including complete metadata. Here, we present an extensive dataset with more than 60 000 point observations of surface mass balance covering 60 Swiss glaciers and almost 140 years, promoting a better understanding of the drivers of recent glacier change.
Tim Steffen, Matthias Huss, Rebekka Estermann, Elias Hodel, and Daniel Farinotti
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 723–741, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-723-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-723-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Climate change is rapidly altering high-alpine landscapes. The formation of new lakes in areas becoming ice free due to glacier retreat is one of the many consequences of this process. Here, we provide an estimate for the number, size, time of emergence, and sediment infill of future glacier lakes that will emerge in the Swiss Alps. We estimate that up to ~ 680 potential lakes could form over the course of the 21st century, with the potential to hold a total water volume of up to ~ 1.16 km3.
Loris Compagno, Matthias Huss, Evan Stewart Miles, Michael James McCarthy, Harry Zekollari, Amaury Dehecq, Francesca Pellicciotti, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 16, 1697–1718, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1697-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1697-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new approach for modelling debris area and thickness evolution. We implement the module into a combined mass-balance ice-flow model, and we apply it using different climate scenarios to project the future evolution of all glaciers in High Mountain Asia. We show that glacier geometry, volume, and flow velocity evolve differently when modelling explicitly debris cover compared to glacier evolution without the debris-cover module, demonstrating the importance of accounting for debris.
Christophe Ogier, Mauro A. Werder, Matthias Huss, Isabelle Kull, David Hodel, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 15, 5133–5150, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5133-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5133-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Glacier-dammed lakes are prone to draining rapidly when the ice dam breaks and constitute a serious threat to populations downstream. Such a lake drainage can proceed through an open-air channel at the glacier surface. In this study, we present what we believe to be the most complete dataset to date of an ice-dammed lake drainage through such an open-air channel. We provide new insights for future glacier-dammed lake drainage modelling studies and hazard assessments.
Johannes Marian Landmann, Hans Rudolf Künsch, Matthias Huss, Christophe Ogier, Markus Kalisch, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 15, 5017–5040, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5017-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5017-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we (1) acquire real-time information on point glacier mass balance with autonomous real-time cameras and (2) assimilate these observations into a mass balance model ensemble driven by meteorological input. For doing so, we use a customized particle filter that we designed for the specific purposes of our study. We find melt rates of up to 0.12 m water equivalent per day and show that our assimilation method has a higher performance than reference mass balance models.
Loris Compagno, Sarah Eggs, Matthias Huss, Harry Zekollari, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 15, 2593–2599, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2593-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2593-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Recently, discussions have focused on the difference in limiting the increase in global average temperatures to below 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 °C compared to preindustrial levels. Here, we assess the impacts that such different scenarios would have on both the future evolution of glaciers in the European Alps and the water resources they provide. Our results show that the different temperature targets have important implications for the changes predicted until 2100.
Cited articles
Behroozmand, A. A., Keating, K., and Auken, E.: A Review of the Principles and Applications of the NMR Technique for Near-Surface Characterization, Surveys in Geophysics, 36, 27–85, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-014-9304-0, 2015. a, b, c, d
Brown, G. H.: Glacier meltwater hydrochemistry, Applied Geochemistry, 17, 855–883, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(01)00123-8, 2002. a
Brown, G. H. and Fuge, R.: Trace element chemistry of glacial meltwaters in an Alpine headwater catchment, Hydrology, Water Resources and Ecology in Headwaters, 248, 435–442, 1998. a
Church, G., Bauder, A., Grab, M., Rabenstein, L., Singh, S., and Maurer, H.: Detecting and characterising an englacial conduit network within a temperate Swiss glacier using active seismic, ground penetrating radar and borehole analysis, Annals of Glaciology, 60, 193–205, https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2019.19, 2019. a, b, c, d
Crameri, F.: Scientific colour maps, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1243862, 2023. a
Crameri, F., Shephard, G. E., and Heron, P. J.: The misuse of colour in science communication, Nature Communications, 11, 5444, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19160-7, 2020. a
Cuffey, K. M. and Paterson, W. S. B.: The physics of glaciers, Butterworth-Heineman, Amsterdam Heidelberg, 4th Edn., ISBN 978-0-12-369461-4, 2010. a
Dlugosch, R., Mueller‐Petke, M., Günther, T., Costabel, S., and Yaramanci, U.: Assessment of the potential of a new generation of surface nuclear magnetic resonance instruments, Near Surface Geophysics, 9, 89–102, https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2010063, 2011. a, b
Fichtner, A.: Lecture Notes on Inverse Theory, Cambridge Open Engage, https://doi.org/10.33774/coe-2021-qpq2j, 2021. a
Fountain, A. G. and Walder, J. S.: Water flow through temperate glaciers, Reviews of Geophysics, 36, 299–328, https://doi.org/10.1029/97RG03579, 1998. a
Fowler, J. R. and Iverson, N. R.: The relationship between the permeability and liquid water content of polycrystalline temperate ice, Journal of Glaciology, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2023.91, 2023. a
Gabriel, L., Ogier, C., and Moser, R.: SNMR and GPR data of an englacial channel in Rhone glacier 2023, Switzerland, ETH Zürich [data set], https://doi.org/10.3929/ETHZ-C-000784320, 2025. a
GLAMOS: GLAMOS 1881-2023, The Swiss Glaciers 1880-2022/23,, Glaciological Reports No 1-142, Yearbooks of the Cryospheric Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences (SCNAT), Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH Zurich), Cryospheric Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences (SCNAT), https://doi.org/10.18752/GLREP_SERIES, 2018. a
Grab, M., Bauder, A., Ammann, F., Langhammer, L., Hellmann, S., Church, G., Schmid, L., Rabenstein, L., and Maurer, H.: Ice volume estimates of Swiss glaciers using helicopter-borne GPR – an example from the Glacier de la Plaine Morte, in: 2018 17th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), 1–4, IEEE, Rapperswil, Switzerland, ISBN 978-1-5386-5777-5, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICGPR.2018.8441613, 2018. a
Grab, M., Mattea, E., Bauder, A., Huss, M., Rabenstein, L., Hodel, E., Linsbauer, A., Langhammer, L., Schmid, L., Church, G., Hellmann, S., Délèze, K., Schaer, P., Lathion, P., Farinotti, D., and Maurer, H.: Ice thickness distribution of all Swiss glaciers based on extended ground-penetrating radar data and glaciological modeling, Journal of Glaciology, 67, 1074–1092, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2021.55, 2021. a
Grombacher, D. and Knight, R.: The impact of off-resonance effects on water content estimates in surface nuclear magnetic resonance, Geophysics, 80, E329–E342, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2014-0402.1, 2015. a
Grunewald, E. and Knight, R.: The effect of pore size and magnetic susceptibility on the surface NMR relaxation parameter, Near Surface Geophysics, 9, 169–178, https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2010062, 2011. a, b
Grunewald, E., Grombacher, D., and Walsh, D.: Adiabatic pulses enhance surface nuclear magnetic resonance measurement and survey speed for groundwater investigations, Geophysics, 81, WB85–WB96, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2015-0527.1, 2016. a
Guillemot, A., Bontemps, N., Larose, E., Teodor, D., Faller, S., Baillet, L., Garambois, S., Thibert, E., Gagliardini, O., and Vincent, C.: Investigating Subglacial Water‐Filled Cavities by Spectral Analysis of Ambient Seismic Noise: Results on the Polythermal Tête‐Rousse Glacier (Mont Blanc, France), Geophysical Research Letters, 51, e2023GL105038, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL105038, 2024. a
Haeberli, W.: Frequency and Characteristics of Glacier Floods in the Swiss Alps, Annals of Glaciology, 4, 85–90, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0260305500005280, 1983. a
Hansen, L. U., Piotrowski, J. A., Benn, D. I., and Sevestre, H.: A cross-validated three-dimensional model of an englacial and subglacial drainage system in a High-Arctic glacier, Journal of Glaciology, 66, 278–290, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2020.1, 2020. a
Hertrich, M.: Imaging of groundwater with nuclear magnetic resonance, Progress in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, 53, 227–248, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnmrs.2008.01.002, 2008. a, b
Hertrich, M. and Walbrecker, J. O.: The potential of surface-NMR to image water in permafrost and glacier ice, Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 10, EGU2008-A-06663, SRef-ID: 1607-7962/gra/EGU2008-A-06663, 2008. a
Hertrich, M., Braun, M., and Yaramanci, U.: Magnetic resonance soundings with separated transmitter and receiver loops, Near Surface Geophysics, 3, 141–154, https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2005010, 2005. a, b
Hertrich, M., Green, A. G., Braun, M., and Yaramanci, U.: High-resolution surface NMR tomography of shallow aquifers based on multioffset measurements, Geophysics, 74, G47–G59, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.3258342, 2009. a, b
Hochstein, M.: Electrical Resistivity Measurements on Ice Sheets, Journal of Glaciology, 6, 623–633, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000019894, 1967. a
IRIS-Instruments: Numis Poly, User's manual, 2019. a
Irvine-Fynn, T. D. L., Hodson, A. J., Moorman, B. J., Vatne, G., and Hubbard, A. L.: POLYTHERMAL GLACIER HYDROLOGY: A REVIEW, Reviews of Geophysics, 49, RG4002, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010RG000350, 2011. a
Kremer, T., Michel, H., and Müller-Petke, M.: MRSMatlab Manual, https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.10021.96485, 2019. a
Kremer, T., Irons, T., Müller-Petke, M., and Juul Larsen, J.: Review of Acquisition and Signal Processing Methods for Electromagnetic Noise Reduction and Retrieval of Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Parameters, Surveys in Geophysics, 43, 999–1053, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09695-3, 2022. a, b, c
Kulessa, B.: A Critical Review of the Low-Frequency Electrical Properties of Ice Sheets and Glaciers, Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, 12, 23–36, https://doi.org/10.2113/JEEG12.1.23, 2007. a
Larsen, J. J. and Behroozmand, A. A.: Processing of surface-nuclear magnetic resonance data from sites with high noise levels, Geophysics, 81, WB75–WB83, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2015-0441.1, 2016. a, b, c
Larsen, J. J., Liu, L., Grombacher, D., Osterman, G., and Auken, E.: Apsu – A new compact surface nuclear magnetic resonance system for groundwater investigation, Geophysics, 85, JM1–JM11, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2018-0779.1, 2020. a
Legchenko, A. V. and Shushakov, O. A.: Inversion of surface NMR data, Geophysics, 63, 75–84, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1444329, 1998. a, b
Legchenko, A., Descloitres, M., Vincent, C., Guyard, H., Garambois, S., Chalikakis, K., and Ezersky, M.: Three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging for groundwater, New Journal of Physics, 13, 025022, https://doi.org/10.1088/1367-2630/13/2/025022, 2011. a, b, c
Lehmann-Horn, J. A., Walbrecker, J. O., Hertrich, M., Langston, G., McClymont, A. F., and Green, A. G.: Imaging groundwater beneath a rugged proglacial moraine, Geophysics, 76, B165–B172, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2011-0095.1, 2011. a, b
Lei, P., Young, M. W., Seymour, J. D., Stillman, D. E., Primm, K., Sizemore, H. G., Rempel, A. W., and Codd, S. L.: NMR Characterization of unfrozen brine vein distribution and structure in model packed beds, Cold Regions Science and Technology, 199, 103572, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103572, 2022. a
Lindner, F., Walter, F., Laske, G., and Gimbert, F.: Glaciohydraulic seismic tremors on an Alpine glacier, The Cryosphere, 14, 287–308, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-287-2020, 2020. a
Lliboutry, L.: Temperate ice permeability, stability of water veins and percolation of internal meltwater, Journal of Glaciology, 42, 201–211, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000004068, 1996. a
Moorman, B. J. and Michel, F. A.: Glacial hydrological system characterization using ground-penetrating radar, Hydrological Processes, 14, 2645–2667, https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1085(20001030)14:15<2645::AID-HYP84>3.0.CO;2-2, 2000. a
Mudler, J., Hördt, A., Kreith, D., Sugand, M., Bazhin, K., Lebedeva, L., and Radić, T.: Broadband spectral induced polarization for the detection of Permafrost and an approach to ice content estimation – a case study from Yakutia, Russia, The Cryosphere, 16, 4727–4744, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4727-2022, 2022. a
Müller, F. and Keeler, C. M.: Errors in Short-Term Ablation Measurements on Melting Ice Surfaces, Journal of Glaciology, 8, 91–105, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000020785, 1969. a
Müller-Petke, M.: Non-remote reference noise cancellation - using reference data in the presence of surface-NMR signals, Journal of Applied Geophysics, 177, 104040, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2020.104040, 2020. a, b
Müller‐Petke, M. and Costabel, S.: Comparison and optimal parameter settings of reference‐based harmonic noise cancellation in time and frequency domains for surface‐NMR, Near Surface Geophysics, 12, 199–210, https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2013033, 2014. a
Müller-Petke, M. and Yaramanci, U.: QT inversion – Comprehensive use of the complete surface NMR data set, Geophysics, 75, WA199–WA209, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.3471523, 2010. a, b, c, d
Müller-Petke, M., Dlugosch, R., and Yaramanci, U.: Evaluation of surface nuclear magnetic resonance-estimated subsurface water content, New Journal of Physics, 13, 095002, https://doi.org/10.1088/1367-2630/13/9/095002, 2011. a, b
Nanni, U., Gimbert, F., Roux, P., and Lecointre, A.: Observing the subglacial hydrology network and its dynamics with a dense seismic array, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118, e2023757118, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023757118, 2021. a
Nuber, A., Rabenstein, L., Lehmann-Horn, J. A., Hertrich, M., Hendricks, S., Mahoney, A., and Eicken, H.: Water content estimates of a first-year sea-ice pressure ridge keel from surface-nuclear magnetic resonance tomography, Annals of Glaciology, 54, 33–43, https://doi.org/10.3189/2013AoG64A205, 2013. a
Ogier, C., Van Manen, D.-J., Maurer, H., Räss, L., Hertrich, M., Bauder, A., and Farinotti, D.: Ground penetrating radar in temperate ice: englacial water inclusions as limiting factor for data interpretation, Journal of Glaciology, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2023.68, 2023. a
Ogier, C., Fischer, M., Werder, M. A., Huss, M., Hupfer, M., Jacquemart, M., Gagliardini, O., Gilbert, A., Hösli, L., Thibert, E., Vincent, C., and Farinotti, D.: Definition, formation and rupture mechanisms of water pockets in alpine glaciers: Insights from an updated inventory for the Swiss Alps, Journal of Glaciology, 71, e82, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2025.43, 2025. a, b
Parsekian, A. D., Grosse, G., Walbrecker, J. O., Müller‐Petke, M., Keating, K., Liu, L., Jones, B. M., and Knight, R.: Detecting unfrozen sediments below thermokarst lakes with surface nuclear magnetic resonance, Geophysical Research Letters, 40, 535–540, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50137, 2013. a
Parsekian, A. D., Creighton, A. L., Jones, B. M., and Arp, C. D.: Surface nuclear magnetic resonance observations of permafrost thaw below floating, bedfast, and transitional ice lakes, Geophysics, 84, EN33–EN45, https://doi.org/10.1190/geo2018-0563.1, 2019. a
Peters, L. E., Anandakrishnan, S., Holland, C. W., Horgan, H. J., Blankenship, D. D., and Voigt, D. E.: Seismic detection of a subglacial lake near the South Pole, Antarctica, Geophysical Research Letters, 35, 2008GL035704, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035704, 2008. a
Pettersson, R., Jansson, P., and Blatter, H.: Spatial variability in water content at the cold-temperate transition surface of the polythermal Storglaciären, Sweden: SPATIAL VARIABILITY IN WATER CONTENT, Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 109, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JF000110, 2004. a, b
Podolskiy, E. A. and Walter, F.: Cryoseismology, Reviews of Geophysics, 54, 708–758, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016RG000526, 2016. a
Raymond, C. F. and Harrison, W. D.: Some Observations on the Behavior of the Liquid and Gas Phases in Temperate Glacier Ice, Journal of Glaciology, 14, 213–233, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000021717, 1975. a
Schirov, M., Legchenko, A., and Creer, G.: A new direct non-invasive groundwater detection technology for Australia, Exploration Geophysics, 22, 333–338, https://doi.org/10.1071/EG991333, 1991. a, b, c
Semenov, A. G., Schirov, M. D., Legchenko, A. V., Burshtein, A. I., and Pusep, A. J.: Device for Measuring the Parameter of Underground Mineral Deposit, Great Britain, Patent B, 2198540, 1989. a
Tarantola, A.: Inverse Problem Theory and Methods for Model Parameter Estimation, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, ISBN 978-0-89871-572-9 978-0-89871-792-1, https://doi.org/10.1137/1.9780898717921, 2005. a
Vincent, C., Thibert, E., Gagliardini, O., Legchenko, A., Gilbert, A., Garambois, S., Condom, T., Baltassat, J., and Girard, J.: Mechanisms of subglacial cavity filling in Glacier de Tête Rousse, French Alps, Journal of Glaciology, 61, 609–623, https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J238, 2015. a
Wagner, F. M., Mollaret, C., Günther, T., Kemna, A., and Hauck, C.: Quantitative imaging of water, ice and air in permafrost systems through petrophysical joint inversion of seismic refraction and electrical resistivity data, Geophysical Journal International, 219, 1866–1875, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz402, 2019. a
Walbrecker, J. O., Hertrich, M., and Green, A. G.: Accounting for relaxation processes during the pulse in surface NMR data, Geophysics, 74, G27–G34, https://doi.org/10.1190/1.3238366, 2009. a
Weichman, P. B., Lavely, E. M., and Ritzwoller, M. H.: Theory of surface nuclear magnetic resonance with applications to geophysical imaging problems, Physical Review E, 62, 1290–1312, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.62.1290, 2000. a, b
Short summary
Surface nuclear magnetic resonance (SNMR) is a geophysical technique directly sensitive to liquid water. We expand the limited applications of SNMR on glaciers by detecting water within Rhonegletscher, Switzerland. By carefully processing the data to reduce noise, we identified signals indicating a water layer near the base of the glacier, surrounded by ice with low water content. Our findings, validated by radar measurements, show SNMR's potential and limitations in studying water in glaciers.
Surface nuclear magnetic resonance (SNMR) is a geophysical technique directly sensitive to...
