Articles | Volume 19, issue 9
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-3655-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Special issue:
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-3655-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Ongoing firn warming at Eclipse Icefield, Yukon, indicates potential widespread meltwater percolation and retention in firn pack across the St. Elias Range
Ingalise Kindstedt
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
School of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Dominic Winski
Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
School of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
C. Max Stevens
Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Emma Skelton
Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
School of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, USA
Luke Copland
Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Karl Kreutz
Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
School of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Mikaila Mannello
Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
School of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Renée Clavette
Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
School of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Jacob Holmes
Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
School of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Mary Albert
Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
Scott N. Williamson
Polar Knowledge Canada, Canadian High Arctic Research Station, Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, Canada
Related authors
Ingalise Kindstedt, Kristin M. Schild, Dominic Winski, Karl Kreutz, Luke Copland, Seth Campbell, and Erin McConnell
The Cryosphere, 16, 3051–3070, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3051-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3051-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We show that neither the large spatial footprint of the MODIS sensor nor poorly constrained snow emissivity values explain the observed cold offset in MODIS land surface temperatures (LSTs) in the St. Elias. Instead, the offset is most prominent under conditions associated with near-surface temperature inversions. This work represents an advance in the application of MODIS LSTs to glaciated alpine regions, where we often depend solely on remote sensing products for temperature information.
Aaron Chesler, Dominic Winski, Karl Kreutz, Bess Koffman, Erich Osterberg, David Ferris, Zayta Thundercloud, Jihong Cole-Dai, Mark Wells, Aaron Putnam, and Katherine Anderson
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1897, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1897, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Southern Hemisphere Westerly Winds impact global climate and Antarctic ice sheet stability; however, there are few complete records over the past 12,000 years. We use a new mineral dust record from a South Pole ice core and identify a decrease in particle concentration and an increase in coarse particle percentage over the past ~11,000 years. Together with other records, our data suggests a southward shift in the winds starting ~6,500 years ago related to warming in the Southern Hemisphere.
Dorota Medrzycka, Luke Copland, Laura Thomson, William Kochtitzky, and Braden Smeda
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 14, 69–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-14-69-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-14-69-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This work explores the use of aerial photography surveys for mapping glaciers, specifically in challenging environments. Using examples from two glaciers in Arctic Canada, we discuss the main factors which can affect data collection and review methods for capturing and processing images to create accurate topographic maps. Key recommendations include choosing the right camera and positioning equipment and adapting survey design to maximise data quality, even under less-than-ideal conditions.
Ursula A. Jongebloed, Jacob I. Chalif, Linia Tashmim, William C. Porter, Kelvin H. Bates, Qianjie Chen, Erich C. Osterberg, Bess G. Koffman, Jihong Cole-Dai, Dominic A. Winski, David G. Ferris, Karl J. Kreutz, Cameron P. Wake, and Becky Alexander
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 4083–4106, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-4083-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-4083-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Marine phytoplankton emit dimethyl sulfide (DMS), which forms methanesulfonic acid (MSA) and sulfate. MSA concentrations in ice cores decreased over the industrial era, which has been attributed to pollution-driven changes in DMS chemistry. We use a model to investigate DMS chemistry compared to observations of DMS, MSA, and sulfate. We find that modeled DMS, MSA, and sulfate are influenced by pollution-sensitive oxidant concentrations, characterization of DMS chemistry, and other variables.
Laurane Charrier, Amaury Dehecq, Lei Guo, Fanny Brun, Romain Millan, Nathan Lioret, Luke Copland, Nathan Maier, Christine Dow, and Paul Halas
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3409, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3409, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
While global annual glacier velocities are openly accessible, sub-annual velocity time series are still lacking. This hinders our ability to understand flow processes and the integration of these observations in numerical models. We introduce an open source Python package called TICOI to fuses multi-temporal and multi-sensor image-pair velocities produced by different processing chains to produce standardized sub-annual velocity products.
Marissa E. Dattler, Brooke Medley, and C. Max Stevens
The Cryosphere, 18, 3613–3631, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3613-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3613-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We developed an algorithm based on combining models and satellite observations to identify the presence of surface melt on the Antarctic Ice Sheet. We find that this method works similarly to previous methods by assessing 13 sites and the Larsen C ice shelf. Unlike previous methods, this algorithm is based on physical parameters, and updates to this method could allow the meltwater present on the Antarctic Ice Sheet to be quantified instead of simply detected.
Whyjay Zheng, Shashank Bhushan, Maximillian Van Wyk De Vries, William Kochtitzky, David Shean, Luke Copland, Christine Dow, Renette Jones-Ivey, and Fernando Pérez
The Cryosphere, 17, 4063–4078, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4063-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4063-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We design and propose a method that can evaluate the quality of glacier velocity maps. The method includes two numbers that we can calculate for each velocity map. Based on statistics and ice flow physics, velocity maps with numbers close to the recommended values are considered to have good quality. We test the method using the data from Kaskawulsh Glacier, Canada, and release an open-sourced software tool called GLAcier Feature Tracking testkit (GLAFT) to help users assess their velocity maps.
Ling Fang, Theo M. Jenk, Dominic Winski, Karl Kreutz, Hanna L. Brooks, Emma Erwin, Erich Osterberg, Seth Campbell, Cameron Wake, and Margit Schwikowski
The Cryosphere, 17, 4007–4020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4007-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4007-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the behavior of ocean–atmosphere teleconnections in the North Pacific during warm intervals can aid in predicting future warming scenarios. However, majority ice core records from Alaska–Yukon region only provide data for the last few centuries. This study introduces a continuous chronology for Denali ice core from Begguya, Alaska, using multiple dating methods. The early-Holocene-origin Denali ice core will facilitate future investigations of hydroclimate in the North Pacific.
Elizabeth R. Thomas, Diana O. Vladimirova, Dieter R. Tetzner, B. Daniel Emanuelsson, Nathan Chellman, Daniel A. Dixon, Hugues Goosse, Mackenzie M. Grieman, Amy C. F. King, Michael Sigl, Danielle G. Udy, Tessa R. Vance, Dominic A. Winski, V. Holly L. Winton, Nancy A. N. Bertler, Akira Hori, Chavarukonam M. Laluraj, Joseph R. McConnell, Yuko Motizuki, Kazuya Takahashi, Hideaki Motoyama, Yoichi Nakai, Franciéle Schwanck, Jefferson Cardia Simões, Filipe Gaudie Ley Lindau, Mirko Severi, Rita Traversi, Sarah Wauthy, Cunde Xiao, Jiao Yang, Ellen Mosely-Thompson, Tamara V. Khodzher, Ludmila P. Golobokova, and Alexey A. Ekaykin
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 2517–2532, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-2517-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-2517-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The concentration of sodium and sulfate measured in Antarctic ice cores is related to changes in both sea ice and winds. Here we have compiled a database of sodium and sulfate records from 105 ice core sites in Antarctica. The records span all, or part, of the past 2000 years. The records will improve our understanding of how winds and sea ice have changed in the past and how they have influenced the climate of Antarctica over the past 2000 years.
Megan Thompson-Munson, Nander Wever, C. Max Stevens, Jan T. M. Lenaerts, and Brooke Medley
The Cryosphere, 17, 2185–2209, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2185-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2185-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
To better understand the Greenland Ice Sheet’s firn layer and its ability to buffer sea level rise by storing meltwater, we analyze firn density observations and output from two firn models. We find that both models, one physics-based and one semi-empirical, simulate realistic density and firn air content when compared to observations. The models differ in their representation of firn air content, highlighting the uncertainty in physical processes and the paucity of deep-firn measurements.
Aaron Chesler, Dominic Winski, Karl Kreutz, Bess Koffman, Erich Osterberg, David Ferris, Zayta Thundercloud, Joseph Mohan, Jihong Cole-Dai, Mark Wells, Michael Handley, Aaron Putnam, Katherine Anderson, and Natalie Harmon
Clim. Past, 19, 477–492, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-477-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-477-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Ice core microparticle data typically use geometry assumptions to calculate particle mass and flux. We use dynamic particle imaging, a novel technique for ice core dust analyses, combined with traditional laser particle counting and Coulter counter techniques to assess particle shape in the South Pole Ice Core (SPC14) spanning 50–16 ka. Our results suggest that particles are dominantly ellipsoidal in shape and that spherical assumptions overestimate particle mass and flux.
Brooke Medley, Thomas A. Neumann, H. Jay Zwally, Benjamin E. Smith, and C. Max Stevens
The Cryosphere, 16, 3971–4011, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3971-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3971-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Satellite altimeters measure the height or volume change over Earth's ice sheets, but in order to understand how that change translates into ice mass, we must account for various processes at the surface. Specifically, snowfall events generate large, transient increases in surface height, yet snow fall has a relatively low density, which means much of that height change is composed of air. This air signal must be removed from the observed height changes before we can assess ice mass change.
Jason P. Briner, Caleb K. Walcott, Joerg M. Schaefer, Nicolás E. Young, Joseph A. MacGregor, Kristin Poinar, Benjamin A. Keisling, Sridhar Anandakrishnan, Mary R. Albert, Tanner Kuhl, and Grant Boeckmann
The Cryosphere, 16, 3933–3948, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3933-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3933-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The 7.4 m of sea level equivalent stored as Greenland ice is getting smaller every year. The uncertain trajectory of ice loss could be better understood with knowledge of the ice sheet's response to past climate change. Within the bedrock below the present-day ice sheet is an archive of past ice-sheet history. We analyze all available data from Greenland to create maps showing where on the ice sheet scientists can drill, using currently available drills, to obtain sub-ice materials.
Ingalise Kindstedt, Kristin M. Schild, Dominic Winski, Karl Kreutz, Luke Copland, Seth Campbell, and Erin McConnell
The Cryosphere, 16, 3051–3070, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3051-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3051-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We show that neither the large spatial footprint of the MODIS sensor nor poorly constrained snow emissivity values explain the observed cold offset in MODIS land surface temperatures (LSTs) in the St. Elias. Instead, the offset is most prominent under conditions associated with near-surface temperature inversions. This work represents an advance in the application of MODIS LSTs to glaciated alpine regions, where we often depend solely on remote sensing products for temperature information.
Michael J. MacFerrin, C. Max Stevens, Baptiste Vandecrux, Edwin D. Waddington, and Waleed Abdalati
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 955–971, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-955-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-955-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The vast majority of the Greenland ice sheet's surface is covered by pluriannual snow, also called firn, that accumulates year after year and is compressed into glacial ice. The thickness of the firn layer changes through time and responds to the surface climate. We present continuous measurement of the firn compaction at various depths for eight sites. The dataset will help to evaluate firn models, interpret ice cores, and convert remotely sensed ice sheet surface height change to mass loss.
Naomi E. Ochwat, Shawn J. Marshall, Brian J. Moorman, Alison S. Criscitiello, and Luke Copland
The Cryosphere, 15, 2021–2040, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2021-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2021-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In May 2018 we drilled into Kaskawulsh Glacier to study how it is being affected by climate warming and used models to investigate the evolution of the firn since the 1960s. We found that the accumulation zone has experienced increased melting that has refrozen as ice layers and has formed a perennial firn aquifer. These results better inform climate-induced changes on northern glaciers and variables to take into account when estimating glacier mass change using remote-sensing methods.
Jenna A. Epifanio, Edward J. Brook, Christo Buizert, Jon S. Edwards, Todd A. Sowers, Emma C. Kahle, Jeffrey P. Severinghaus, Eric J. Steig, Dominic A. Winski, Erich C. Osterberg, Tyler J. Fudge, Murat Aydin, Ekaterina Hood, Michael Kalk, Karl J. Kreutz, David G. Ferris, and Joshua A. Kennedy
Clim. Past, 16, 2431–2444, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-2431-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-2431-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A new ice core drilled at the South Pole provides a 54 000-year paleo-environmental record including the composition of the past atmosphere. This paper describes the gas chronology for the South Pole ice core, based on a high-resolution methane record. The new gas chronology, in combination with the existing ice age scale from Winski et al. (2019), allows a model-independent reconstruction of the delta age record.
Baptiste Vandecrux, Ruth Mottram, Peter L. Langen, Robert S. Fausto, Martin Olesen, C. Max Stevens, Vincent Verjans, Amber Leeson, Stefan Ligtenberg, Peter Kuipers Munneke, Sergey Marchenko, Ward van Pelt, Colin R. Meyer, Sebastian B. Simonsen, Achim Heilig, Samira Samimi, Shawn Marshall, Horst Machguth, Michael MacFerrin, Masashi Niwano, Olivia Miller, Clifford I. Voss, and Jason E. Box
The Cryosphere, 14, 3785–3810, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3785-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3785-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In the vast interior of the Greenland ice sheet, snow accumulates into a thick and porous layer called firn. Each summer, the firn retains part of the meltwater generated at the surface and buffers sea-level rise. In this study, we compare nine firn models traditionally used to quantify this retention at four sites and evaluate their performance against a set of in situ observations. We highlight limitations of certain model designs and give perspectives for future model development.
C. Max Stevens, Vincent Verjans, Jessica M. D. Lundin, Emma C. Kahle, Annika N. Horlings, Brita I. Horlings, and Edwin D. Waddington
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 4355–4377, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4355-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4355-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding processes in snow (firn), including compaction and airflow, is important for calculating how much mass the ice sheets are losing and for interpreting climate records from ice cores. We have developed the open-source Community Firn Model to simulate these processes. We used it to compare 13 different firn compaction equations and found that they do not agree within 10 %. We also show that including firn compaction in a firn-air model improves the match with data from ice cores.
Vincent Verjans, Amber A. Leeson, Christopher Nemeth, C. Max Stevens, Peter Kuipers Munneke, Brice Noël, and Jan Melchior van Wessem
The Cryosphere, 14, 3017–3032, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3017-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3017-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Ice sheets are covered by a firn layer, which is the transition stage between fresh snow and ice. Accurate modelling of firn density properties is important in many glaciological aspects. Current models show disagreements, are mostly calibrated to match specific observations of firn density and lack thorough uncertainty analysis. We use a novel calibration method for firn models based on a Bayesian statistical framework, which results in improved model accuracy and in uncertainty evaluation.
Cited articles
Albert, M., Koh, G., and Perron, F.: Radar investigations of melt pathways in a natural snowpack, Hydrol. Process., 13, 2991–3000, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(19991230)13:18<2991::AID-HYP10>3.0.CO;2-5, 1999. a
Amory, C., Buizert, C., Buzzard, S., Case, E., Clerx, N., Culberg, R., Datta, R. T., Dey, R., Drews, R., Dunmire, D., Eayrs, C., Hansen, N., Humbert, A., Kaitheri, A., Keegan, K., Munneke, P. K., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Lhermitte, S., Mair, D., McDowell, I., Mejia, J., Meyer, C. R., Morris, E., Moser, D., Oraschewski, F. M., Pearce, E., Husman, S. d. R., Schlegel, N. J., Schultz, T., Simonsen, S. B., Stevens, C. M., Thomas, E. R., Thompson-Munson, M., Wever, N., and Wouters, B.: Firn on ice sheets, Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 5, 79–99, https://doi.org/10.1038/S43017-023-00507-9, 2024. a, b, c
Bengtsson, L.: Percolation of meltwater through a snowpack, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 6, 73–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-232X(82)90046-5, 1982. a
Bezeau, P., Sharp, M., Burgess, D., and Gascon, G.: Firn profile changes in response to extreme 21st-century melting at Devon Ice Cap, Nunavut, Canada, J. Glaciol., 59, 981–991, https://doi.org/10.3189/2013JOG12J208, 2013. a
Burgess, E. W., Forster, R. R., Box, J. E., Mosley-Thompson, E., Bromwich, D. H., Bales, R. C., and Smith, L. C.: A spatially calibrated model of annual accumulation rate on the Greenland Ice Sheet (1958–2007), J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 115, F02004, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001293, 2010. a
Bøggild, C. E., Forsberg, R., and Reeh, N.: Meltwater retention in a transect across the Greenland ice sheet, Ann. Glaciol., 40, 169–173, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756405781813546, 2005. a
Calonne, N., Milliancourt, L., Burr, A., Philip, A., Martin, C. L., Flin, F., and Geindreau, C.: Thermal Conductivity of Snow, Firn, and Porous Ice From 3-D Image-Based Computations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 13079–13089, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085228, 2019. a
Campbell, S., Kreutz, K., Osterberg, E., Arcone, S., Wake, C., Introne, D., Volkening, K., and Winski, D.: Melt regimes, stratigraphy, flow dynamics and glaciochemistry of three glaciers in the Alaska Range, J. Glaciol., 58, 99–109, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JOG10J238, 2012. a
Clerx, N., Machguth, H., Tedstone, A., Jullien, N., Wever, N., Weingartner, R., and Roessler, O.: In situ measurements of meltwater flow through snow and firn in the accumulation zone of the SW Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 16, 4379–4401, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4379-2022, 2022. a
Colbeck, S. C.: A Theory of Water Percolation in Snow, J. Glaciol., 11, 369–385, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000022346, 1972. a
Colbeck, S. C.: An overview of seasonal snow metamorphism, Rev. Geophys., 20, 45–61, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG020I001P00045, 1982. a
Colbeck, S. C. and Parssinen, N.: Regelation and the Deformation of Wet Snow, J. Glaciol., 21, 639–650, https://doi.org/10.3189/S002214300003375X, 1978. a
Evans, S. L., Flores, A. N., Heilig, A., Kohn, M. J., Marshall, H. P., and McNamara, J. P.: Isotopic evidence for lateral flow and diffusive transport, but not sublimation, in a sloped seasonal snowpack, Idaho, USA, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 3298–3306, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL067605, 2016. a
Fisher, D. A., Wake, C., Kreutz, K., Yalcin, K., Steig, E., Mayewski, P., Anderson, L., Zheng, J., Rupper, S., Zdanowicz, C., Demuth, M., Waszkiewicz, M., Dahl-Jensen, D., Goto-Azuma, K., Bourgeois, J. B., Koerner, R. M., Sekerka, J., Osterberg, E., Abbott, M. B., Finney, B. P., and Burns, S. J.: Stable isotope records from Mount Logan, eclipse ice cores and nearby Jellybean Lake. Water cycle of the North Pacific over 2000 years and over five vertical kilometres: Sudden shifts and tropical connections, Geogr. Phys. Quatern., 58, 337–352, https://doi.org/10.7202/013147AR, 2004. a
Fountain, A. G.: The Storage of Water in, and Hydraulic Characteristics of, the Firn of South Cascade Glacier, Washington State, U.S.A., Ann. Glaciol., 13, 69–75, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0260305500007667, 1989. a, b
Grew, E. and Mellor, M.: High snowfields of the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon Territory, Canada, DA project no. ILO13001A91A, 1966. a
Hannah, D. M., Gurnell, A. M., and McGregor, G. R.: Spatio-temporal variation in microclimate, the surface energy balance and ablation over a cirque glacier, Int. J. Climatol., 20, 733–758, https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0088(20000615)20:7<733::AID-JOC490>3.0.CO;2-F, 2000. a
Harper, J., Humphrey, N., Pfeffer, W. T., Brown, J., and Fettweis, X.: Greenland ice-sheet contribution to sea-level rise buffered by meltwater storage in firn, Nature, 491, 240–243, https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE11566, 2012. a, b, c
Hawley, R. L., Neumann, T. A., Stevens, C. M., Brunt, K. M., and Sutterley, T. C.: Greenland Ice Sheet Elevation Change: Direct Observation of Process and Attribution at Summit, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2020GL088864, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088864, 2020. a
Hill, T., Dow, C. F., Bash, E. A., and Copland, L.: Application of an improved surface energy balance model to two large valley glaciers in the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon, J. Glaciol., 67, 297–312, https://doi.org/10.1017/JOG.2020.106, 2021. a, b
Horlings, A. N., Christianson, K., and Miège, C.: Expansion of Firn Aquifers in Southeast Greenland, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 127, e2022JF006753, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JF006753, 2022. a, b, c
Humphrey, N. F., Harper, J. T., and Pfeffer, W. T.: Thermal tracking of meltwater retention in Greenland's accumulation area, J. Geophys. Rese.-Earth, 117, 1010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002083, 2012. a
Immerzeel, W. W., Lutz, A. F., Andrade, M., Bahl, A., Biemans, H., Bolch, T., Hyde, S., Brumby, S., Davies, B. J., Elmore, A. C., Emmer, A., Feng, M., Fernández, A., Haritashya, U., Kargel, J. S., Koppes, M., Kraaijenbrink, P. D. A., Kulkarni, A. V., Mayewski, P. A., Nepal, S., Pacheco, P., Painter, T. H., Pellicciotti, F., Rajaram, H., Rupper, S., Sinisalo, A., Shrestha, A. B., Viviroli, D., Wada, Y., Xiao, C., Yao, T., and Baillie, J. E. M.: Importance and vulnerability of the world’s water towers, Nature, 577, 364–369, https://doi.org/10.1038/S41586-019-1822-Y, 2019. a
Jansson, P., Hock, R., and Schneider, T.: The concept of glacier storage: a review, J. Hydrol., 282, 116–129, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00258-0, 2003. a
Jarosch, A. H., Anslow, F. S., and Clarke, G. K. C.: High-resolution precipitation and temperature downscaling for glacier models, Clim. Dynam., 38, 391–409, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-010-0949-1, 2012. a, b
Jordan, R.: Effects of Capillary Discontinuities on Water Flow and Water Retention in Layered Snowcovers, Defence Sci. J., 45, 79–91, 1995. a
Kelsey, E. P., Wake, C. P., Yalcin, K., and Kreutz, K.: Eclipse ice core accumulation and stable isotope variability as an indicator of North Pacific climate, J. Climate, 25, 6426–6440, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00389.1, 2012. a
Kindstedt, I., Skelton, E., Mannello, M., and Clavette, R.: Eclipse Icefield (Yukon, Canada) June 2023 firn core stratigraphy, density, and borehole temperatures, Arctic Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.18739/A2000026Z, 2025. a
Kochtitzky, W., Winski, D., McConnell, E., Kreutz, K., Campbell, S., Enderlin, E. M., Copland, L., Williamson, S., Main, B., and Jiskoot, H.: Climate and surging of Donjek Glacier, Yukon, Canada, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 52, 264–280, https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2020.1744397, 2020. a, b, c
Koenig, L. S., Miège, C., Forster, R. R., and Brucker, L.: Initial in situ measurements of perennial meltwater storage in the Greenland firn aquifer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 81–85, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL058083, 2014. a, b
Kreutz, K., Campbell, S., Winski, D., Dixon, D., and Wake, C.: Eclipse Icefield (Yukon, Canada) 2002 and 2016 borehole temperature data, Arctic Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.18739/A2MK65B0F, 2025. a
Kuipers Munneke, P., Ligtenberg, S. R. M., Noël, B. P. Y., Howat, I. M., Box, J. E., Mosley-Thompson, E., McConnell, J. R., Steffen, K., Harper, J. T., Das, S. B., and van den Broeke, M. R.: Elevation change of the Greenland Ice Sheet due to surface mass balance and firn processes, 1960–2014, The Cryosphere, 9, 2009–2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2009-2015, 2015. a, b
Lilien, D. A., Hills, B. H., Driscol, J., Jacobel, R., and Christianson, K.: ImpDAR: an open-source impulse radar processor, Ann. Glaciol., 61, 114–123, https://doi.org/10.1017/AOG.2020.44, 2020. a, b
MacFerrin, M., Machguth, H., As, D. v., Charalampidis, C., Stevens, C. M., Heilig, A., Vandecrux, B., Langen, P. L., Mottram, R., Fettweis, X., Broeke, M. R. v. d., Pfeffer, W. T., Moussavi, M. S., and Abdalati, W.: Rapid expansion of Greenland’s low-permeability ice slabs, Nature, 573, 403–407, https://doi.org/10.1038/S41586-019-1550-3, 2019. a, b, c, d
Machguth, H., Macferrin, M., As, D. V., Box, J. E., Charalampidis, C., Colgan, W., Fausto, R. S., Meijer, H. A. J., Mosley-Thompson, E., and van de Wal, R. S. W.: Greenland meltwater storage in firn limited by near-surface ice formation, Nat. Clim. Change, 6, 390–393, https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2899, 2016. a, b
Marcus, M. G. and Ragle, R. H.: Snow Accumulation in the Icefield Ranges, St. Elias Mountains, Yukon, Arctic Alpine Res., 2, 277–292, https://doi.org/10.1080/00040851.1970.12003587, 1970. a
Marsh, P. and Woo, M.-K.: Wetting front advance and freezing of meltwater within a snow cover: 1. Observations in the Canadian Arctic, Water Resour. Res., 20, 1853–1864, https://doi.org/10.1029/WR020I012P01853, 1984. a
McDowell, I. E., Keegan, K. M., Wever, N., Osterberg, E. C., Hawley, R. L., and Marshall, H. P.: Firn Core Evidence of Two-Way Feedback Mechanisms Between Meltwater Infiltration and Firn Microstructure From the Western Percolation Zone of the Greenland Ice Sheet, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 128, e2022JF006752, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JF006752, 2023. a, b
Mernild, S. H., Hasholt, B., and Liston, G. E.: Water flow through Mittivakkat Glacier, Ammassalik Island, SE Greenland, Geogr. Tidsskr., 106, 25–43, https://doi.org/10.1080/00167223.2006.10649543, 2006. a
Miller, J. B., Frisbee, M. D., Hamilton, T. L., and Murugapiran, S. K.: Recharge from glacial meltwater is critical for alpine springs and their microbiomes, Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 064012, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ABF06B, 2021. a
Miller, M. M.: The terms ”Névé” and ”Firn”, J. Glaciol., 2, 150–151, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000034195, 1952. a
Miège, C., Forster, R. R., Brucker, L., Koenig, L. S., Solomon, D. K., Paden, J. D., Box, J. E., Burgess, E. W., Miller, J. Z., McNerney, L., Brautigam, N., Fausto, R. S., and Gogineni, S.: Spatial extent and temporal variability of Greenland firn aquifers detected by ground and airborne radars, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 121, 2381–2398, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JF003869, 2016. a, b
Montgomery, L., Koenig, L., Lenaerts, J. T. M., and Munneke, P. K.: Accumulation rates (2009–2017) in Southeast Greenland derived from airborne snow radar and comparison with regional climate models, Ann. Glaciol., 61, 225–233, https://doi.org/10.1017/AOG.2020.8, 2020. a
Moran, T. and Marshall, S.: The effects of meltwater percolation on the seasonal isotopic signals in an Arctic snowpack, J. Glaciol., 55, 1012–1024, https://doi.org/10.3189/002214309790794896, 2009. a
Ochwat, N. E., Marshall, S. J., Moorman, B. J., Criscitiello, A. S., and Copland, L.: Evolution of the firn pack of Kaskawulsh Glacier, Yukon: meltwater effects, densification, and the development of a perennial firn aquifer, The Cryosphere, 15, 2021–2040, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2021-2021, 2021. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l
Polashenski, C., Courville, Z., Benson, C., Wagner, A., Chen, J., Wong, G., Hawley, R., and Hall, D.: Observations of pronounced Greenland ice sheet firn warming and implications for runoff production, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 4238–4246, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL059806, 2014. a
Samimi, S. and Marshall, S. J.: Diurnal cycles of meltwater percolation, refreezing, and drainage in the supraglacial snowpack of Haig Glacier, Canadian Rocky Mountains, Front. Earth Sci., 5, 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/FEART.2017.00006, 2017. a
Schneider, T.: Water movement in the firn of Storglaciären, Sweden, J. Glaciol., 45, 286–294, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000001787, 1999. a, b
Sommerfeld, R. A., La, E., Hape, C., and Le, L.: The Classification of Snow Metamorphism, J. Glaciol., 9, 3–18, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000026757, 1970. a, b, c
Stevens, C. M., Verjans, V., Lundin, J. M. D., Kahle, E. C., Horlings, A. N., Horlings, B. I., and Waddington, E. D.: The Community Firn Model (CFM) v1.0, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 4355–4377, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4355-2020, 2020. a
Stevens, M., Vo, H., emmakahle, Jboat, and oraschewski: UWGlaciology/CommunityFirnModel: Version 2.2.0, v2.2.0, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8083362, 2023. a
Thompson-Munson, M., Kay, J. E., and Markle, B. R.: Greenland's firn responds more to warming than to cooling, The Cryosphere, 18, 3333–3350, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3333-2024, 2024. a, b
Vandecrux, B., Fausto, R. S., Box, J. E., Covi, F., Hock, R., Rennermalm, Å. K., Heilig, A., Abermann, J., van As, D., Bjerre, E., Fettweis, X., Smeets, P. C. J. P., Kuipers Munneke, P., van den Broeke, M. R., Brils, M., Langen, P. L., Mottram, R., and Ahlstrøm, A. P.: Recent warming trends of the Greenland ice sheet documented by historical firn and ice temperature observations and machine learning, The Cryosphere, 18, 609–631, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-609-2024, 2024. a
Wake, C. P., Yalcin, K., and Gundestrup, N. S.: The climate signal recorded in the oxygen-isotope, accumulation and major-ion time series from the Eclipse ice core, YukonTerritory, Canada, Ann. Glaciol., 35, 416–422, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756402781817266, 2002. a
Williamson, S. N., Zdanowicz, C., Anslow, F. S., Clarke, G. K. C., Copland, L., Danby, R. K., Flowers, G. E., Holdsworth, G., Jarosch, A. H., and Hik, D. S.: Evidence for elevation-dependent warming in the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon, Canada, J. Climate, 33, 3253–3269, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0405.1, 2020. a, b, c, d, e, f
Winski, D., Kreutz, K., Osterberg, E., Campbell, S., and Wake, C.: High-frequency observations of melt effects on snowpack stratigraphy, Kahiltna Glacier, Central Alaska Range, Hydrol. Process., 26, 2573–2582, https://doi.org/10.1002/HYP.9348, 2012. a
Winski, D., Osterberg, E., Kreutz, K., Wake, C., Ferris, D., Campbell, S., Baum, M., Bailey, A., Birkel, S., Introne, D., and Handley, M.: A 400-Year Ice Core Melt Layer Record of Summertime Warming in the Alaska Range, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 123, 3594–3611, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027539, 2018. a
Yalcin, K., Wake, C. P., Kreutz, K. J., Germani, M. S., and Whitlow, S. I.: Ice core evidence for a second volcanic eruption around 1809 in the Northern Hemisphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L14706, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026013, 2006. a, b, c
Yalcin, K., Wake, C. P., Kreutz, K. J., Germani, M. S., and Whitlow, S. L.: Ice core paleovolcanic records from the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon, Canada, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D08102, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007497, 2007. a
Short summary
Atmospheric warming over mountain glaciers is leading to increased warming and melting of snow as it compresses into glacier ice. This affects both regional hydrology and climate records contained in the ice. Here we use field observations and modeling to show that surface melting and percolation at Eclipse Icefield (Yukon, Canada) are increasing with an increase in extreme melt events and that compressing snow at Eclipse is likely to continue warming even if air temperatures remain stable.
Atmospheric warming over mountain glaciers is leading to increased warming and melting of snow...