Articles | Volume 19, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2229-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2229-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
25 Jun 2025
Research article |
| 25 Jun 2025
| 25 Jun 2025
Mechanisms and impacts of anomalous high-salinity shelf water formation in the Ross Sea
Xiaoqiao Wang
College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha, China
Key Laboratory of High Impact Weather (special), China Meteorological Administration, Changsha, China
Key Laboratory of Polar Ecosystem and Climate Change, Ministry of Education and School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Polar Life and Environment Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of Polar Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, China
Key Laboratory for Polar Science, Polar Research Institute of China, Ministry of Natural Resources, Shanghai, 200136, China
Chuan Xie
Key Laboratory of Polar Ecosystem and Climate Change, Ministry of Education and School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, China
Xi Zhao
School of Geospatial Engineering and Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
Key Laboratory of Comprehensive Observation of Polar Environment, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Zhuhai, 519082, China
Chuning Wang
Key Laboratory of Polar Ecosystem and Climate Change, Ministry of Education and School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Polar Life and Environment Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of Polar Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, China
Heng Hu
Key Laboratory of Polar Ecosystem and Climate Change, Ministry of Education and School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, China
Yuanjie Chen
Key Laboratory of Polar Ecosystem and Climate Change, Ministry of Education and School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, China
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Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1375–1393, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1375-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1375-2025, 2025
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A coupled fine-resolution ocean–ice model is developed for the Ross Sea and adjacent regions in Antarctica, a key area for the formation of global ocean bottom water, the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW), which affects global ocean circulation. The model has a high skill level in simulating sea ice production driving the AABW source water formation and AABW properties when assessed against observations. A model experiment shows a significant impact of ice shelf melting on the AABW characteristics.
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The Cryosphere, 17, 1107–1126, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1107-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1107-2023, 2023
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The bottom water of the global ocean originates from high-salinity water formed in polynyas in the Southern Ocean where sea ice coverage is low. This study reveals the impacts of cyclones on sea ice and water mass formation in the Ross Ice Shelf Polynya using numerical simulations. Sea ice production is rapidly increased caused by enhancement in offshore wind, promoting high-salinity water formation in the polynya. Cyclones also modulate the transport of this water mass by wind-driven currents.
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Discipline: Sea ice | Subject: Ocean Interactions
Finely-resolved along-track wave attenuation estimates in the Antarctic marginal ice zone from ICESat-2
Two-dimensional numerical simulations of mixing under ice keels
Seasonal and diurnal variability of sub-ice platelet layer thickness in McMurdo Sound from electromagnetic induction sounding
The role of upper-ocean heat content in the regional variability of Arctic sea ice at sub-seasonal timescales
A method for constructing directional surface wave spectra from ICESat-2 altimetry
A model for the Arctic mixed layer circulation under a summertime lead: implications for the near-surface temperature maximum formation
Underestimation of oceanic carbon uptake in the Arctic Ocean: ice melt as predictor of the sea ice carbon pump
Uncertainty analysis of single- and multiple-size-class frazil ice models
Wave–sea-ice interactions in a brittle rheological framework
Experimental evidence for a universal threshold characterizing wave-induced sea ice break-up
High-resolution simulations of interactions between surface ocean dynamics and frazil ice
Frazil ice growth and production during katabatic wind events in the Ross Sea, Antarctica
Towards a coupled model to investigate wave–sea ice interactions in the Arctic marginal ice zone
Wave energy attenuation in fields of colliding ice floes – Part 2: A laboratory case study
Responses of sub-ice platelet layer thickening rate and frazil-ice concentration to variations in ice-shelf water supercooling in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica
Joey J. Voermans, Alexander D. Fraser, Jill Brouwer, Michael H. Meylan, Qingxiang Liu, and Alexander V. Babanin
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2104, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2104, 2024
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Limited measurements of waves in sea ice exist, preventing our understanding of wave attenuation in sea ice under a wide range of ice conditions. Using satellite observations from ICESat-2 we observe an overall linear increase of the wave attenuation rate with distance into the marginal ice zone. While attenuation may vary greatly locally, this finding may provide opportunities for the modelling of waves in sea ice at global and climate scales when such fine detail may not be needed.
Sam De Abreu, Rosalie M. Cormier, Mikhail G. Schee, Varvara E. Zemskova, Erica Rosenblum, and Nicolas Grisouard
The Cryosphere, 18, 3159–3176, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3159-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3159-2024, 2024
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Arctic sea ice is becoming more mobile and thinner, which will affect the upper Arctic Ocean in unforeseen ways. Using numerical simulations, we find that mixing by ice keels (ridges underlying sea ice) depends significantly on their speeds and depths and the density structure of the upper ocean. Large uncertainties in our results highlight the need for more realistic numerical simulations and better measurements of ice keel characteristics.
Gemma M. Brett, Greg H. Leonard, Wolfgang Rack, Christian Haas, Patricia J. Langhorne, Natalie J. Robinson, and Anne Irvin
The Cryosphere, 18, 3049–3066, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3049-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3049-2024, 2024
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Glacial meltwater with ice crystals flows from beneath ice shelves, causing thicker sea ice with sub-ice platelet layers (SIPLs) beneath. Thicker sea ice and SIPL reveal where and how much meltwater is outflowing. We collected continuous measurements of sea ice and SIPL. In winter, we observed rapid SIPL growth with strong winds. In spring, SIPLs grew when tides caused offshore circulation. Wind-driven and tidal circulation influence glacial meltwater outflow from ice shelf cavities.
Elena Bianco, Doroteaciro Iovino, Simona Masina, Stefano Materia, and Paolo Ruggieri
The Cryosphere, 18, 2357–2379, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2357-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2357-2024, 2024
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Changes in ocean heat transport and surface heat fluxes in recent decades have altered the Arctic Ocean heat budget and caused warming of the upper ocean. Using two eddy-permitting ocean reanalyses, we show that this has important implications for sea ice variability. In the Arctic regional seas, upper-ocean heat content acts as an important precursor for sea ice anomalies on sub-seasonal timescales, and this link has strengthened since the 2000s.
Momme C. Hell and Christopher Horvat
The Cryosphere, 18, 341–361, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-341-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-341-2024, 2024
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Sea ice is heavily impacted by waves on its margins, and we currently do not have routine observations of waves in sea ice. Here we propose two methods to separate the surface waves from the sea-ice height observations along each ICESat-2 track using machine learning. Both methods together allow us to follow changes in the wave height through the sea ice.
Alberto Alvarez
The Cryosphere, 17, 3343–3361, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3343-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3343-2023, 2023
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A near-surface temperature maximum (NSTM) layer is typically observed under different Arctic basins. Although its development seems to be related to solar heating in leads, its formation mechanism is under debate. This study uses numerical modeling in an idealized framework to demonstrate that the NSTM layer forms under a summer lead exposed to a combination of calm and moderate wind periods. Future warming of this layer could modify acoustic propagation with implications for marine mammals.
Benjamin Richaud, Katja Fennel, Eric C. J. Oliver, Michael D. DeGrandpre, Timothée Bourgeois, Xianmin Hu, and Youyu Lu
The Cryosphere, 17, 2665–2680, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2665-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2665-2023, 2023
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Sea ice is a dynamic carbon reservoir. Its seasonal growth and melt modify the carbonate chemistry in the upper ocean, with consequences for the Arctic Ocean carbon sink. Yet, the importance of this process is poorly quantified. Using two independent approaches, this study provides new methods to evaluate the error in air–sea carbon flux estimates due to the lack of biogeochemistry in ice in earth system models. Those errors range from 5 % to 30 %, depending on the model and climate projection.
Fabien Souillé, Cédric Goeury, and Rem-Sophia Mouradi
The Cryosphere, 17, 1645–1674, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1645-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1645-2023, 2023
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Models that can predict temperature and ice crystal formation (frazil) in water are important for river and coastal engineering. Indeed, frazil has direct impact on submerged structures and often precedes the formation of ice cover. In this paper, an uncertainty analysis of two mathematical models that simulate supercooling and frazil is carried out within a probabilistic framework. The presented methodology offers new insight into the models and their parameterization.
Guillaume Boutin, Timothy Williams, Pierre Rampal, Einar Olason, and Camille Lique
The Cryosphere, 15, 431–457, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-431-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-431-2021, 2021
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In this study, we investigate the interactions of surface ocean waves with sea ice. We focus on the evolution of sea ice after it has been fragmented by the waves. Fragmented sea ice is expected to experience less resistance to deformation. We reproduce this evolution using a new coupling framework between a wave model and the recently developed sea ice model neXtSIM. We find that waves can significantly increase the mobility of compact sea ice over wide areas in the wake of storm events.
Joey J. Voermans, Jean Rabault, Kirill Filchuk, Ivan Ryzhov, Petra Heil, Aleksey Marchenko, Clarence O. Collins III, Mohammed Dabboor, Graig Sutherland, and Alexander V. Babanin
The Cryosphere, 14, 4265–4278, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4265-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4265-2020, 2020
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In this work we demonstrate the existence of an observational threshold which identifies when waves are most likely to break sea ice. This threshold is based on information from two recent field campaigns, supplemented with existing observations of sea ice break-up. We show that both field and laboratory observations tend to converge to a single quantitative threshold at which the wave-induced sea ice break-up takes place, which opens a promising avenue for operational forecasting models.
Agnieszka Herman, Maciej Dojczman, and Kamila Świszcz
The Cryosphere, 14, 3707–3729, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3707-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3707-2020, 2020
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Under typical conditions favorable for sea ice formation in many regions (strong wind and waves, low air temperature), ice forms not at the sea surface but within the upper, turbulent layer of the ocean. Although interactions between ice and ocean dynamics are very important for the evolution of sea ice cover, many aspects of them are poorly understood. We use a numerical model to analyze three-dimensional water circulation and ice transport and show that ice strongly modifies that circulation.
Lisa Thompson, Madison Smith, Jim Thomson, Sharon Stammerjohn, Steve Ackley, and Brice Loose
The Cryosphere, 14, 3329–3347, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3329-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3329-2020, 2020
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The offshore winds around Antarctica can reach hurricane strength and produce intense cooling, causing the surface ocean to form a slurry of seawater and ice crystals. For the first time, we observed a buildup of heat and salt in the surface ocean, caused by loose ice crystal formation. We conclude that up to 1 m of ice was formed per day by the intense cooling, suggesting that unconsolidated crystals may be an important part of the total freezing that happens around Antarctica.
Guillaume Boutin, Camille Lique, Fabrice Ardhuin, Clément Rousset, Claude Talandier, Mickael Accensi, and Fanny Girard-Ardhuin
The Cryosphere, 14, 709–735, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-709-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-709-2020, 2020
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We investigate the interactions of surface ocean waves with sea ice taking place at the interface between the compact sea ice cover and the open ocean. We use a newly developed coupling framework between a wave and an ocean–sea ice numerical model. Our results show how the push on sea ice exerted by waves changes the amount and the location of sea ice melting, with a strong impact on the ocean surface properties close to the ice edge.
Agnieszka Herman, Sukun Cheng, and Hayley H. Shen
The Cryosphere, 13, 2901–2914, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2901-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2901-2019, 2019
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Sea ice interactions with waves are extensively studied in recent years, but mechanisms leading to wave energy attenuation in sea ice remain poorly understood. One of the reasons limiting progress in modelling is a lack of observational data for model validation. The paper presents an analysis of laboratory observations of waves propagating in colliding ice floes. We show that wave attenuation is sensitive to floe size and wave period. A numerical model is calibrated to reproduce this behaviour.
Chen Cheng, Adrian Jenkins, Paul R. Holland, Zhaomin Wang, Chengyan Liu, and Ruibin Xia
The Cryosphere, 13, 265–280, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-265-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-265-2019, 2019
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The sub-ice platelet layer (SIPL) under fast ice is most prevalent in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Using a modified plume model, we investigated the responses of SIPL thickening rate and frazil concentration to variations in ice shelf water supercooling in McMurdo Sound. It would be key to parameterizing the relevant process in more complex three-dimensional, primitive equation ocean models, which relies on the knowledge of the suspended frazil size spectrum within the ice–ocean boundary layer.
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Short summary
Global bottom water originates from high-salinity shelf water (HSSW), formed by intense sea ice production (SIP) in the Southern Ocean. This study uses numerical outputs for the Ross Sea to examine the extreme HSSW event in 2007, when atmospheric circulations enhanced SIP, resulting in the highest HSSW volume in a decade. However, salinity was low, owing to increased meltwater. The findings highlight the complex interplay between SIP and ice shelf melting, with key implications for ocean processes.
Global bottom water originates from high-salinity shelf water (HSSW), formed by intense sea ice...
