Articles | Volume 19, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1391-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1391-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
28 Mar 2025
Research article |
| 28 Mar 2025
| 28 Mar 2025
National Weather Service Alaska Sea Ice Program: gridded ice concentration maps for the Alaskan Arctic
Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
Michael Steele
Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
Mary-Beth Schreck
National Weather Service Alaska Sea Ice Program, Anchorage, AK 99513, USA
Related authors
Elizabeth Westbrook, Peter Gaube, Emmett Culhane, Frederick Bingham, Astrid Pacini, Carlyn Schmidgall, Julian Schanze, and Kyla Drushka
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-643, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-643, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems (GI).
Short summary
Short summary
We develop a machine learning methods to detect and classify how much sea ice was present around our research vessel. We used a navigation radar common on many merchant vessels attached to a screen capture device. The captured images were classified using a convolutional neural network and the resulting classification were found to be in good agreement with direct observations and satellite-based products.
Elizabeth Westbrook, Peter Gaube, Emmett Culhane, Frederick Bingham, Astrid Pacini, Carlyn Schmidgall, Julian Schanze, and Kyla Drushka
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-643, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-643, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems (GI).
Short summary
Short summary
We develop a machine learning methods to detect and classify how much sea ice was present around our research vessel. We used a navigation radar common on many merchant vessels attached to a screen capture device. The captured images were classified using a convolutional neural network and the resulting classification were found to be in good agreement with direct observations and satellite-based products.
Kyla Drushka, Elizabeth Westbrook, Frederick M. Bingham, Peter Gaube, Suzanne Dickinson, Severine Fournier, Viviane Menezes, Sidharth Misra, Jaynice Pérez Valentín, Edwin J. Rainville, Julian J. Schanze, Carlyn Schmidgall, Andrey Shcherbina, Michael Steele, Jim Thomson, and Seth Zippel
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4209–4242, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4209-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4209-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The NASA SASSIE mission aims to understand the role of salinity in modifying sea ice formation in early autumn. The 2022 SASSIE campaign collected measurements of upper-ocean properties, including stratification (layering of the ocean) and air–sea fluxes in the Beaufort Sea. These data are presented here and made publicly available on the NASA Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC), along with code to manipulate the data and generate the figures presented herein.
Related subject area
Discipline: Sea ice | Subject: Sea Ice
Spring 2021 sea ice transport in the southern Beaufort Sea occurred during coastal-lead opening events
Seasonal evolution of the sea ice floe size distribution in the Beaufort Sea from 2 decades of MODIS data
Suitability of the CICE sea ice model for seasonal prediction and positive impact of CryoSat-2 ice thickness initialization
A large-scale high-resolution numerical model for sea-ice fragmentation dynamics
Experimental modelling of the growth of tubular ice brinicles from brine flows under sea ice
Why is summertime Arctic sea ice drift speed projected to decrease?
Impact of atmospheric rivers on Arctic sea ice variations
The impacts of anomalies in atmospheric circulations on Arctic sea ice outflow and sea ice conditions in the Barents and Greenland seas: case study in 2020
Atmospheric highs drive asymmetric sea ice drift during lead opening from Point Barrow
Spatial characteristics of frazil streaks in the Terra Nova Bay Polynya from high-resolution visible satellite imagery
Modelling the evolution of Arctic multiyear sea ice over 2000–2018
A quasi-objective single-buoy approach for understanding Lagrangian coherent structures and sea ice dynamics
Linking scales of sea ice surface topography: evaluation of ICESat-2 measurements with coincident helicopter laser scanning during MOSAiC
Analysis of microseismicity in sea ice with deep learning and Bayesian inference: application to high-resolution thickness monitoring
A collection of wet beam models for wave–ice interaction
First results of Antarctic sea ice type retrieval from active and passive microwave remote sensing data
Probabilistic spatiotemporal seasonal sea ice presence forecasting using sequence-to-sequence learning and ERA5 data in the Hudson Bay region
Predictability of Arctic sea ice drift in coupled climate models
Recovering and monitoring the thickness, density, and elastic properties of sea ice from seismic noise recorded in Svalbard
Influences of changing sea ice and snow thicknesses on simulated Arctic winter heat fluxes
Reassessing seasonal sea ice predictability of the Pacific-Arctic sector using a Markov model
A new state-dependent parameterization for the free drift of sea ice
Arctic sea ice sensitivity to lateral melting representation in a coupled climate model
Retrieval and parameterisation of sea-ice bulk density from airborne multi-sensor measurements
A generalized stress correction scheme for the Maxwell elasto-brittle rheology: impact on the fracture angles and deformations
Wave dispersion and dissipation in landfast ice: comparison of observations against models
The influence of snow on sea ice as assessed from simulations of CESM2
Meltwater sources and sinks for multiyear Arctic sea ice in summer
An X-ray micro-tomographic study of the pore space, permeability and percolation threshold of young sea ice
Calibration of sea ice drift forecasts using random forest algorithms
Multiscale variations in Arctic sea ice motion and links to atmospheric and oceanic conditions
The flexural strength of bonded ice
Interannual variability in Transpolar Drift summer sea ice thickness and potential impact of Atlantification
An inter-comparison of the mass budget of the Arctic sea ice in CMIP6 models
Refining the sea surface identification approach for determining freeboards in the ICESat-2 sea ice products
Surface-based Ku- and Ka-band polarimetric radar for sea ice studies
Statistical predictability of the Arctic sea ice volume anomaly: identifying predictors and optimal sampling locations
Satellite-based sea ice thickness changes in the Laptev Sea from 2002 to 2017: comparison to mooring observations
Modeling the annual cycle of daily Antarctic sea ice extent
Changes of the Arctic marginal ice zone during the satellite era
An enhancement to sea ice motion and age products at the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC)
Accuracy and inter-analyst agreement of visually estimated sea ice concentrations in Canadian Ice Service ice charts using single-polarization RADARSAT-2
Prediction of monthly Arctic sea ice concentrations using satellite and reanalysis data based on convolutional neural networks
Variability scaling and consistency in airborne and satellite altimetry measurements of Arctic sea ice
Sea ice volume variability and water temperature in the Greenland Sea
Sea ice export through the Fram Strait derived from a combined model and satellite data set
Estimating early-winter Antarctic sea ice thickness from deformed ice morphology
On the multi-fractal scaling properties of sea ice deformation
Brief communication: Pancake ice floe size distribution during the winter expansion of the Antarctic marginal ice zone
What historical landfast ice observations tell us about projected ice conditions in Arctic archipelagoes and marginal seas under anthropogenic forcing
MacKenzie E. Jewell, Jennifer K. Hutchings, and Angela C. Bliss
The Cryosphere, 19, 1413–1430, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1413-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1413-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We quantify the contribution of sea ice drift during coastal-lead events to seasonal ice transport in the Beaufort Sea. Data from GPS tracker buoys deployed as part of the Sea Ice Dynamic Experiment (SIDEx) in spring 2021 show that sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea became more responsive to wind forcing during fracturing events detected from satellite observations. Nearly all the spring 2021 sea ice transport occurred during these events, highlighting their importance at seasonal timescales.
Ellen M. Buckley, Leela Cañuelas, Mary-Louise Timmermans, and Monica M. Wilhelmus
The Cryosphere, 18, 5031–5043, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5031-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5031-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Arctic sea ice cover evolves seasonally from large plates separated by long, linear leads in the winter to a mosaic of smaller sea ice floes in the summer. Here, we present a new image segmentation algorithm applied to thousands of images and identify over 9 million individual pieces of ice. We observe the characteristics of the floes and how they evolve throughout the summer as the ice breaks up.
Shan Sun and Amy Solomon
The Cryosphere, 18, 3033–3048, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3033-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3033-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The study brings to light the suitability of CICE for seasonal prediction being contingent on several factors, such as initial conditions like sea ice coverage and thickness, as well as atmospheric and oceanic conditions including oceanic currents and sea surface temperature. We show there is potential to improve seasonal forecasting by using a more reliable sea ice thickness initialization. Thus, data assimilation of sea ice thickness is highly relevant for advancing seasonal prediction skills.
Jan Åström, Fredrik Robertsen, Jari Haapala, Arttu Polojärvi, Rivo Uiboupin, and Ilja Maljutenko
The Cryosphere, 18, 2429–2442, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2429-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2429-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The HiDEM code has been developed for analyzing the fracture and fragmentation of brittle materials and has been extensively applied to glacier calving. Here, we report on the adaptation of the code to sea-ice dynamics and breakup. The code demonstrates the capability to simulate sea-ice dynamics on a 100 km scale with an unprecedented resolution. We argue that codes of this type may become useful for improving forecasts of sea-ice dynamics.
Sergio Testón-Martínez, Laura M. Barge, Jan Eichler, C. Ignacio Sainz-Díaz, and Julyan H. E. Cartwright
The Cryosphere, 18, 2195–2205, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2195-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2195-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Brinicles are tubular ice structures that grow under the sea ice in cold regions. This happens because the salty water going downwards from the sea ice is colder than the seawater. We have successfully recreated an analogue of these structures in our laboratory. Three methods were used, producing different results. In this paper, we explain how to use these methods and study the behaviour of the brinicles created when changing the flow of water and study the importance for natural brinicles.
Jamie L. Ward and Neil F. Tandon
The Cryosphere, 18, 995–1012, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-995-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-995-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Over the long term, the speed at which sea ice in the Arctic moves has been increasing during all seasons. However, nearly all climate models project that sea ice motion will decrease during summer. This study aims to understand the mechanisms responsible for these projected decreases in summertime sea ice motion. We find that models produce changes in winds and ocean surface tilt which cause the sea ice to slow down, and it is realistic to expect such changes to also occur in the real world.
Linghan Li, Forest Cannon, Matthew R. Mazloff, Aneesh C. Subramanian, Anna M. Wilson, and Fred Martin Ralph
The Cryosphere, 18, 121–137, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-121-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-121-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate how the moisture transport through atmospheric rivers influences Arctic sea ice variations using hourly atmospheric ERA5 for 1981–2020 at 0.25° × 0.25° resolution. We show that individual atmospheric rivers initiate rapid sea ice decrease through surface heat flux and winds. We find that the rate of change in sea ice concentration has significant anticorrelation with moisture, northward wind and turbulent heat flux on weather timescales almost everywhere in the Arctic Ocean.
Fanyi Zhang, Ruibo Lei, Mengxi Zhai, Xiaoping Pang, and Na Li
The Cryosphere, 17, 4609–4628, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4609-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4609-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Atmospheric circulation anomalies lead to high Arctic sea ice outflow in winter 2020, causing heavy ice conditions in the Barents–Greenland seas, subsequently impeding the sea surface temperature warming. This suggests that the winter–spring Arctic sea ice outflow can be considered a predictor of changes in sea ice and other marine environmental conditions in the Barents–Greenland seas, which could help to improve our understanding of the physical connections between them.
MacKenzie E. Jewell, Jennifer K. Hutchings, and Cathleen A. Geiger
The Cryosphere, 17, 3229–3250, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3229-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3229-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Sea ice repeatedly fractures near a prominent Alaskan headland as winds move ice along the coast, challenging predictions of sea ice drift. We find winds from high-pressure systems drive these fracturing events, and the Alaskan coastal boundary modifies the resultant ice drift. This observational study shows how wind patterns influence sea ice motion near coasts in winter. Identified relations between winds, ice drift, and fracturing provide effective test cases for dynamic sea ice models.
Katarzyna Bradtke and Agnieszka Herman
The Cryosphere, 17, 2073–2094, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2073-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2073-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The frazil streaks are one of the visible signs of complex interactions between the mixed-layer dynamics and the forming sea ice. Using high-resolution visible satellite imagery we characterize their spatial properties, relationship with the meteorological forcing, and role in modifying wind-wave growth in the Terra Nova Bay Polynya. We provide a simple statistical tool for estimating the extent and ice coverage of the region of high ice production under given wind speed and air temperature.
Heather Regan, Pierre Rampal, Einar Ólason, Guillaume Boutin, and Anton Korosov
The Cryosphere, 17, 1873–1893, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1873-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1873-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Multiyear ice (MYI), sea ice that survives the summer, is more resistant to changes than younger ice in the Arctic, so it is a good indicator of sea ice resilience. We use a model with a new way of tracking MYI to assess the contribution of different processes affecting MYI. We find two important years for MYI decline: 2007, when dynamics are important, and 2012, when melt is important. These affect MYI volume and area in different ways, which is important for the interpretation of observations.
Nikolas O. Aksamit, Randall K. Scharien, Jennifer K. Hutchings, and Jennifer V. Lukovich
The Cryosphere, 17, 1545–1566, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1545-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1545-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Coherent flow patterns in sea ice have a significant influence on sea ice fracture and refreezing. We can better understand the state of sea ice, and its influence on the atmosphere and ocean, if we understand these structures. By adapting recent developments in chaotic dynamical systems, we are able to approximate ice stretching surrounding individual ice buoys. This illuminates the state of sea ice at much higher resolution and allows us to see previously invisible ice deformation patterns.
Robert Ricker, Steven Fons, Arttu Jutila, Nils Hutter, Kyle Duncan, Sinead L. Farrell, Nathan T. Kurtz, and Renée Mie Fredensborg Hansen
The Cryosphere, 17, 1411–1429, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1411-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1411-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Information on sea ice surface topography is important for studies of sea ice as well as for ship navigation through ice. The ICESat-2 satellite senses the sea ice surface with six laser beams. To examine the accuracy of these measurements, we carried out a temporally coincident helicopter flight along the same ground track as the satellite and measured the sea ice surface topography with a laser scanner. This showed that ICESat-2 can see even bumps of only few meters in the sea ice cover.
Ludovic Moreau, Léonard Seydoux, Jérôme Weiss, and Michel Campillo
The Cryosphere, 17, 1327–1341, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1327-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1327-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In the perspective of an upcoming seasonally ice-free Arctic, understanding the dynamics of sea ice in the changing climate is a major challenge in oceanography and climatology. It is therefore essential to monitor sea ice properties with fine temporal and spatial resolution. In this paper, we show that icequakes recorded on sea ice can be processed with artificial intelligence to produce accurate maps of sea ice thickness with high temporal and spatial resolutions.
Sasan Tavakoli and Alexander V. Babanin
The Cryosphere, 17, 939–958, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-939-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-939-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We have tried to develop some new wave–ice interaction models by considering two different types of forces, one of which emerges in the ice and the other of which emerges in the water. We have checked the ability of the models in the reconstruction of wave–ice interaction in a step-wise manner. The accuracy level of the models is acceptable, and it will be interesting to check whether they can be used in wave climate models or not.
Christian Melsheimer, Gunnar Spreen, Yufang Ye, and Mohammed Shokr
The Cryosphere, 17, 105–126, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-105-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-105-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
It is necessary to know the type of Antarctic sea ice present – first-year ice (grown in one season) or multiyear ice (survived one summer melt) – to understand and model its evolution, as the ice types behave and react differently. We have adapted and extended an existing method (originally for the Arctic), and now, for the first time, daily maps of Antarctic sea ice types can be derived from microwave satellite data. This will allow a new data set from 2002 well into the future to be built.
Nazanin Asadi, Philippe Lamontagne, Matthew King, Martin Richard, and K. Andrea Scott
The Cryosphere, 16, 3753–3773, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3753-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3753-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Machine learning approaches are deployed to provide accurate daily spatial maps of sea ice presence probability based on ERA5 data as input. Predictions are capable of predicting freeze-up/breakup dates within a 7 d period at specific locations of interest to shipping operators and communities. Forecasts of the proposed method during the breakup season have skills comparing to Climate Normal and sea ice concentration forecasts from a leading subseasonal-to-seasonal forecasting system.
Simon Felix Reifenberg and Helge Friedrich Goessling
The Cryosphere, 16, 2927–2946, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2927-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2927-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Using model simulations, we analyze the impact of chaotic error growth on Arctic sea ice drift predictions. Regarding forecast uncertainty, our results suggest that it matters in which season and where ice drift forecasts are initialized and that both factors vary with the model in use. We find ice velocities to be slightly more predictable than near-surface wind, a main driver of ice drift. This is relevant for future developments of ice drift forecasting systems.
Agathe Serripierri, Ludovic Moreau, Pierre Boue, Jérôme Weiss, and Philippe Roux
The Cryosphere, 16, 2527–2543, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2527-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2527-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
As a result of global warming, the sea ice is disappearing at a much faster rate than predicted by climate models. To better understand and predict its ongoing decline, we deployed 247 geophones on the fast ice in Van Mijen Fjord in Svalbard, Norway, in March 2019. The analysis of these data provided a precise daily evolution of the sea-ice parameters at this location with high spatial and temporal resolution and accuracy. The results obtained are consistent with the observations made in situ.
Laura L. Landrum and Marika M. Holland
The Cryosphere, 16, 1483–1495, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1483-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1483-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
High-latitude Arctic wintertime sea ice and snow insulate the relatively warmer ocean from the colder atmosphere. As the climate warms, wintertime Arctic conductive heat fluxes increase even when the sea ice concentrations remain high. Simulations from the Community Earth System Model Large Ensemble (CESM1-LE) show how sea ice and snow thicknesses, as well as the distribution of these thicknesses, significantly impact large-scale calculations of wintertime surface heat budgets in the Arctic.
Yunhe Wang, Xiaojun Yuan, Haibo Bi, Mitchell Bushuk, Yu Liang, Cuihua Li, and Haijun Huang
The Cryosphere, 16, 1141–1156, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1141-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1141-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We develop a regional linear Markov model consisting of four modules with seasonally dependent variables in the Pacific sector. The model retains skill for detrended sea ice extent predictions for up to 7-month lead times in the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk. The prediction skill, as measured by the percentage of grid points with significant correlations (PGS), increased by 75 % in the Bering Sea and 16 % in the Sea of Okhotsk relative to the earlier pan-Arctic model.
Charles Brunette, L. Bruno Tremblay, and Robert Newton
The Cryosphere, 16, 533–557, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-533-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-533-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Sea ice motion is a versatile parameter for monitoring the Arctic climate system. In this contribution, we use data from drifting buoys, winds, and ice thickness to parameterize the motion of sea ice in a free drift regime – i.e., flowing freely in response to the forcing from the winds and ocean currents. We show that including a dependence on sea ice thickness and taking into account a climatology of the surface ocean circulation significantly improves the accuracy of sea ice motion estimates.
Madison M. Smith, Marika Holland, and Bonnie Light
The Cryosphere, 16, 419–434, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-419-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-419-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Climate models represent the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, and land with equations of varying complexity and are important tools for understanding changes in global climate. Here, we explore how realistic variations in the equations describing how sea ice melt occurs at the edges (called lateral melting) impact ice and climate. We find that these changes impact the progression of the sea-ice–albedo feedback in the Arctic and so make significant changes to the predicted Arctic sea ice.
Arttu Jutila, Stefan Hendricks, Robert Ricker, Luisa von Albedyll, Thomas Krumpen, and Christian Haas
The Cryosphere, 16, 259–275, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-259-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-259-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Sea-ice thickness retrieval from satellite altimeters relies on assumed sea-ice density values because density cannot be measured from space. We derived bulk densities for different ice types using airborne laser, radar, and electromagnetic induction sounding measurements. Compared to previous studies, we found high bulk density values due to ice deformation and younger ice cover. Using sea-ice freeboard, we derived a sea-ice bulk density parameterisation that can be applied to satellite data.
Mathieu Plante and L. Bruno Tremblay
The Cryosphere, 15, 5623–5638, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5623-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5623-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We propose a generalized form for the damage parameterization such that super-critical stresses can return to the yield with different final sub-critical stress states. In uniaxial compression simulations, the generalization improves the orientation of sea ice fractures and reduces the growth of numerical errors. Shear and convergence deformations however remain predominant along the fractures, contrary to observations, and this calls for modification of the post-fracture viscosity formulation.
Joey J. Voermans, Qingxiang Liu, Aleksey Marchenko, Jean Rabault, Kirill Filchuk, Ivan Ryzhov, Petra Heil, Takuji Waseda, Takehiko Nose, Tsubasa Kodaira, Jingkai Li, and Alexander V. Babanin
The Cryosphere, 15, 5557–5575, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5557-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-5557-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We have shown through field experiments that the amount of wave energy dissipated in landfast ice, sea ice attached to land, is much larger than in broken ice. By comparing our measurements against predictions of contemporary wave–ice interaction models, we determined which models can explain our observations and which cannot. Our results will improve our understanding of how waves and ice interact and how we can model such interactions to better forecast waves and ice in the polar regions.
Marika M. Holland, David Clemens-Sewall, Laura Landrum, Bonnie Light, Donald Perovich, Chris Polashenski, Madison Smith, and Melinda Webster
The Cryosphere, 15, 4981–4998, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4981-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4981-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
As the most reflective and most insulative natural material, snow has important climate effects. For snow on sea ice, its high reflectivity reduces ice melt. However, its high insulating capacity limits ice growth. These counteracting effects make its net influence on sea ice uncertain. We find that with increasing snow, sea ice in both hemispheres is thicker and more extensive. However, the drivers of this response are different in the two hemispheres due to different climate conditions.
Don Perovich, Madison Smith, Bonnie Light, and Melinda Webster
The Cryosphere, 15, 4517–4525, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4517-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4517-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
During summer, Arctic sea ice melts on its surface and bottom and lateral edges. Some of this fresh meltwater is stored on the ice surface in features called melt ponds. The rest flows into the ocean. The meltwater flowing into the upper ocean affects ice growth and melt, upper ocean properties, and ocean ecosystems. Using field measurements, we found that the summer meltwater was equal to an 80 cm thick layer; 85 % of this meltwater flowed into the ocean and 15 % was stored in melt ponds.
Sönke Maus, Martin Schneebeli, and Andreas Wiegmann
The Cryosphere, 15, 4047–4072, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4047-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4047-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
As the hydraulic permeability of sea ice is difficult to measure, observations are sparse. The present work presents numerical simulations of the permeability of young sea ice based on a large set of 3D X-ray tomographic images. It extends the relationship between permeability and porosity available so far down to brine porosities near the percolation threshold of a few per cent. Evaluation of pore scales and 3D connectivity provides novel insight into the percolation behaviour of sea ice.
Cyril Palerme and Malte Müller
The Cryosphere, 15, 3989–4004, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3989-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3989-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Methods have been developed for calibrating sea ice drift forecasts from an operational prediction system using machine learning algorithms. These algorithms use predictors from sea ice concentration observations during the initialization of the forecasts, sea ice and wind forecasts, and some geographical information. Depending on the calibration method, the mean absolute error is reduced between 3.3 % and 8.0 % for the direction and between 2.5 % and 7.1 % for the speed of sea ice drift.
Dongyang Fu, Bei Liu, Yali Qi, Guo Yu, Haoen Huang, and Lilian Qu
The Cryosphere, 15, 3797–3811, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3797-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3797-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Our results show three main sea ice drift patterns have different multiscale variation characteristics. The oscillation period of the third sea ice transport pattern is longer than the other two, and the ocean environment has a more significant influence on it due to the different regulatory effects of the atmosphere and ocean environment on sea ice drift patterns on various scales. Our research can provide a basis for the study of Arctic sea ice dynamics parameterization in numerical models.
Andrii Murdza, Arttu Polojärvi, Erland M. Schulson, and Carl E. Renshaw
The Cryosphere, 15, 2957–2967, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2957-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2957-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The strength of refrozen floes or piles of ice rubble is an important factor in assessing ice-structure interactions, as well as the integrity of an ice cover itself. The results of this paper provide unique data on the tensile strength of freeze bonds and are the first measurements to be reported. The provided information can lead to a better understanding of the behavior of refrozen ice floes and better estimates of the strength of an ice rubble pile.
H. Jakob Belter, Thomas Krumpen, Luisa von Albedyll, Tatiana A. Alekseeva, Gerit Birnbaum, Sergei V. Frolov, Stefan Hendricks, Andreas Herber, Igor Polyakov, Ian Raphael, Robert Ricker, Sergei S. Serovetnikov, Melinda Webster, and Christian Haas
The Cryosphere, 15, 2575–2591, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2575-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2575-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Summer sea ice thickness observations based on electromagnetic induction measurements north of Fram Strait show a 20 % reduction in mean and modal ice thickness from 2001–2020. The observed variability is caused by changes in drift speeds and consequential variations in sea ice age and number of freezing-degree days. Increased ocean heat fluxes measured upstream in the source regions of Arctic ice seem to precondition ice thickness, which is potentially still measurable more than a year later.
Ann Keen, Ed Blockley, David A. Bailey, Jens Boldingh Debernard, Mitchell Bushuk, Steve Delhaye, David Docquier, Daniel Feltham, François Massonnet, Siobhan O'Farrell, Leandro Ponsoni, José M. Rodriguez, David Schroeder, Neil Swart, Takahiro Toyoda, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Martin Vancoppenolle, and Klaus Wyser
The Cryosphere, 15, 951–982, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-951-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-951-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We compare the mass budget of the Arctic sea ice in a number of the latest climate models. New output has been defined that allows us to compare the processes of sea ice growth and loss in a more detailed way than has previously been possible. We find that that the models are strikingly similar in terms of the major processes causing the annual growth and loss of Arctic sea ice and that the budget terms respond in a broadly consistent way as the climate warms during the 21st century.
Ron Kwok, Alek A. Petty, Marco Bagnardi, Nathan T. Kurtz, Glenn F. Cunningham, Alvaro Ivanoff, and Sahra Kacimi
The Cryosphere, 15, 821–833, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-821-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-821-2021, 2021
Julienne Stroeve, Vishnu Nandan, Rosemary Willatt, Rasmus Tonboe, Stefan Hendricks, Robert Ricker, James Mead, Robbie Mallett, Marcus Huntemann, Polona Itkin, Martin Schneebeli, Daniela Krampe, Gunnar Spreen, Jeremy Wilkinson, Ilkka Matero, Mario Hoppmann, and Michel Tsamados
The Cryosphere, 14, 4405–4426, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4405-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4405-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides a first look at the data collected by a new dual-frequency Ka- and Ku-band in situ radar over winter sea ice in the Arctic Ocean. The instrument shows potential for using both bands to retrieve snow depth over sea ice, as well as sensitivity of the measurements to changing snow and atmospheric conditions.
Leandro Ponsoni, François Massonnet, David Docquier, Guillian Van Achter, and Thierry Fichefet
The Cryosphere, 14, 2409–2428, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2409-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2409-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The continuous melting of the Arctic sea ice observed in the last decades has a significant impact at global and regional scales. To understand the amplitude and consequences of this impact, the monitoring of the total sea ice volume is crucial. However, in situ monitoring in such a harsh environment is hard to perform and far too expensive. This study shows that four well-placed sampling locations are sufficient to explain about 70 % of the inter-annual changes in the pan-Arctic sea ice volume.
H. Jakob Belter, Thomas Krumpen, Stefan Hendricks, Jens Hoelemann, Markus A. Janout, Robert Ricker, and Christian Haas
The Cryosphere, 14, 2189–2203, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2189-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2189-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The validation of satellite sea ice thickness (SIT) climate data records with newly acquired moored sonar SIT data shows that satellite products provide modal rather than mean SIT in the Laptev Sea region. This tendency of satellite-based SIT products to underestimate mean SIT needs to be considered for investigations of sea ice volume transports. Validation of satellite SIT in the first-year-ice-dominated Laptev Sea will support algorithm development for more reliable SIT records in the Arctic.
Mark S. Handcock and Marilyn N. Raphael
The Cryosphere, 14, 2159–2172, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2159-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2159-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Traditional methods of calculating the annual cycle of sea ice extent disguise the variation of amplitude and timing (phase) of the advance and retreat of the ice. We present a multiscale model that explicitly allows them to vary, resulting in a much improved representation of the cycle. We show that phase is the dominant contributor to the variability in the cycle and that the anomalous decay of Antarctic sea ice in 2016 was due largely to a change of phase.
Rebecca J. Rolph, Daniel L. Feltham, and David Schröder
The Cryosphere, 14, 1971–1984, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1971-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1971-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
It is well known that the Arctic sea ice extent is declining, and it is often assumed that the marginal ice zone (MIZ), the area of partial sea ice cover, is consequently increasing. However, we find no trend in the MIZ extent during the last 40 years from observations that is consistent with a widening of the MIZ as it moves northward. Differences of MIZ extent between different satellite retrievals are too large to provide a robust basis to verify model simulations of MIZ extent.
Mark A. Tschudi, Walter N. Meier, and J. Scott Stewart
The Cryosphere, 14, 1519–1536, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1519-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1519-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A new version of a set of data products that contain the velocity of sea ice and the age of this ice has been developed. We provide a history of the product development and discuss the improvements to the algorithms that create these products. We find that changes in sea ice motion and age show a significant shift in the Arctic ice cover, from a pack with a high concentration of older ice to a sea ice cover dominated by younger ice, which is more susceptible to summer melt.
Angela Cheng, Barbara Casati, Adrienne Tivy, Tom Zagon, Jean-François Lemieux, and L. Bruno Tremblay
The Cryosphere, 14, 1289–1310, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1289-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1289-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Sea ice charts by the Canadian Ice Service (CIS) contain visually estimated ice concentration produced by analysts. The accuracy of manually derived ice concentrations is not well understood. The subsequent uncertainty of ice charts results in downstream uncertainties for ice charts users, such as models and climatology studies, and when used as a verification source for automated sea ice classifiers. This study quantifies the level of accuracy and inter-analyst agreement for ice charts by CIS.
Young Jun Kim, Hyun-Cheol Kim, Daehyeon Han, Sanggyun Lee, and Jungho Im
The Cryosphere, 14, 1083–1104, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1083-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1083-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we proposed a novel 1-month sea ice concentration (SIC) prediction model with eight predictors using a deep-learning approach, convolutional neural networks (CNNs). The proposed CNN model was evaluated and compared with the two baseline approaches, random-forest and simple-regression models, resulting in better performance. This study also examined SIC predictions for two extreme cases in 2007 and 2012 in detail and the influencing factors through a sensitivity analysis.
Shiming Xu, Lu Zhou, and Bin Wang
The Cryosphere, 14, 751–767, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-751-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-751-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Sea ice thickness parameters are key to polar climate change studies and forecasts. Airborne and satellite measurements provide complementary observational capabilities. The study analyzes the variability in freeboard and snow depth measurements and its changes with scale in Operation IceBridge, CryoVEx, CryoSat-2 and ICESat. Consistency between airborne and satellite data is checked. Analysis calls for process-oriented attribution of variability and covariability features of these parameters.
Valeria Selyuzhenok, Igor Bashmachnikov, Robert Ricker, Anna Vesman, and Leonid Bobylev
The Cryosphere, 14, 477–495, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-477-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-477-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores a link between the long-term variations in the integral sea ice volume in the Greenland Sea and oceanic processes. We link the changes in the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System (PIOMAS) regional sea ice volume with the mixed layer, depth and upper-ocean heat content derived using the ARMOR dataset.
Chao Min, Longjiang Mu, Qinghua Yang, Robert Ricker, Qian Shi, Bo Han, Renhao Wu, and Jiping Liu
The Cryosphere, 13, 3209–3224, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3209-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3209-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Sea ice volume export through the Fram Strait has been studied using varied methods, however, mostly in winter months. Here we report sea ice volume estimates that extend over summer seasons. A recent developed sea ice thickness dataset, in which CryoSat-2 and SMOS sea ice thickness together with SSMI/SSMIS sea ice concentration are assimilated, is used and evaluated in the paper. Results show our estimate is more reasonable than that calculated by satellite data only.
M. Jeffrey Mei, Ted Maksym, Blake Weissling, and Hanumant Singh
The Cryosphere, 13, 2915–2934, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2915-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2915-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Sea ice thickness is hard to measure directly, and current datasets are very limited to sporadically conducted drill lines. However, surface elevation is much easier to measure. Converting surface elevation to ice thickness requires making assumptions about snow depth and density, which leads to large errors (and may not generalize to new datasets). A deep learning method is presented that uses the surface morphology as a direct predictor of sea ice thickness, with testing errors of < 20 %.
Pierre Rampal, Véronique Dansereau, Einar Olason, Sylvain Bouillon, Timothy Williams, Anton Korosov, and Abdoulaye Samaké
The Cryosphere, 13, 2457–2474, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2457-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2457-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
In this article, we look at how the Arctic sea ice cover, as a solid body, behaves on different temporal and spatial scales. We show that the numerical model neXtSIM uses a new approach to simulate the mechanics of sea ice and reproduce the characteristics of how sea ice deforms, as observed by satellite. We discuss the importance of this model performance in the context of simulating climate processes taking place in polar regions, like the exchange of energy between the ocean and atmosphere.
Alberto Alberello, Miguel Onorato, Luke Bennetts, Marcello Vichi, Clare Eayrs, Keith MacHutchon, and Alessandro Toffoli
The Cryosphere, 13, 41–48, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-41-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-41-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Existing observations do not provide quantitative descriptions of the floe size distribution for pancake ice floes. This is important during the Antarctic winter sea ice expansion, when hundreds of kilometres of ice cover around the Antarctic continent are composed of pancake floes (D = 0.3–3 m). Here, a new set of images from the Antarctic marginal ice zone is used to measure the shape of individual pancakes for the first time and to infer their size distribution.
Frédéric Laliberté, Stephen E. L. Howell, Jean-François Lemieux, Frédéric Dupont, and Ji Lei
The Cryosphere, 12, 3577–3588, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3577-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3577-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Ice that forms over marginal seas often gets anchored and becomes landfast. Landfast ice is fundamental to the local ecosystems, is of economic importance as it leads to hazardous seafaring conditions and is also a choice hunting ground for both the local population and large predators. Using observations and climate simulations, this study shows that, especially in the Canadian Arctic, landfast ice might be more resilient to climate change than is generally thought.
Cited articles
Agnew, T. and Howell, S.: The use of operational ice charts for evaluating passive microwave ice concentration data, Atmosphere-Ocean, 41, 317–331, https://doi.org/10.3137/ao.410405, 2003.
Beitsch, A., Kaleschke, L., and Kern, S.: Investigating High-Resolution AMSR2 Sea Ice Concentrations during the February 2013 Fracture Event in the Beaufort Sea, Remote Sens., 6, 3841–3856, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs6053841, 2014.
Beitsch, A., Kern, S., and Kaleschke, L.: Comparison of SSM/I and AMSR-E sea ice concentrations with ASPeCt ship observations around antarctica, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 53, 1985–1996, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2014.2351497, 2015.
Boylan, B. M.: Increased maritime traffic in the Arctic: Implications for governance of Arctic sea routes, Marine Policy, 131, 104566, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104566, 2021.
Buus-Hinkler, J., Wulf, T., Stokholm, A. R., Korosov, A., Saldo, R., Pedersen, L. T., Arthurs, D., Solberg, R., Longépé, N., and Kreiner, M. B.: AI4Arctic Sea Ice Challenge Dataset, Technical University of Denmark, Collection, https://doi.org/10.11583/DTU.c.6244065.v2, 2022.
Canadian Ice Service: Canadian Ice Service Arctic Regional Sea Ice Charts in SIGRID-3 Format, Version 1, Boulder, Colorado USA, National Snow and Ice Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.7265/N51V5BW9, 2009.
Cavalieri, D. J., Gloersen, P., and Campbell, W. J.: Determination of sea ice parameters with the Nimbus 7 SMMR, J. Geophys. Res., 89, 5355–5369, https://doi.org/10.1029/JD089iD04p05355, 1984.
Cavalieri, D. J., Burns, B. A., and Onstott, R. G.: Investigation of the effects of summer melt on the calculation of sea ice concentration using active and passive microwave data, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 5359–5369, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC095iC04p05359, 1990.
Cavalieri, D. J., Crawford, J. P., Drinkwater, M. R., Eppler, D. T., Farmer, L. D., Jentz, R. R., and Wackerman, C. C.: Aircraft active and passive microwave validation of sea ice concentration from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program special sensor microwave imager, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 96, 21989–22008, https://doi.org/10.1029/91JC02335, 1991.
Cavalieri, D. J., Parkinson, C. L., Gloersen, P., Comiso, J. C., and Zwally, H. J.: Deriving long‐term time series of sea ice cover from satellite passive‐microwave multisensor data sets, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 107, 15803–15814, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JC900081, 1999.
Chin, T. M., Vazquez-Cuervo, J., and Armstrong, E. M.: A multi-scale high-resolution analysis of global sea surface temperature, PO.DAAC, CA, USA [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/GHGMR-4FJ04, 2017.
Chiodi, A. M., Zhang, C., Cokelet, E. D., Yang, Q., Mordy, C. W., Gentemann, C. L., Cross, J. N., Lawrence-Slavas, N., Meinig, C., Steele, M., Harrison, D. E., Stabeno, P. J., Tabisola, H. M., Zhang, D., Burger, E. F., O'Brien, K. M., and Wang, M.: Exploring the Pacific Arctic Seasonal Ice Zone With Saildrone USVs, Front. Marine Sci., 8, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.640697, 2021.
Cokelet, E. D., Meinig, C., Lawrence-Slavas, N., Stabeno, P. J., Mordy, C. W., Tabisola, H. M., Jenkins, R., and Cross, J. N.: The Use of Saildrones to Examine Spring Conditions in the Bering Sea: Instrument Comparisons, Sea Ice Meltwater and Yukon River Plume Studies, OCEANS 2015 – MTS/IEEE Washington, Washington, DC, USA, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.23919/OCEANS.2015.7404357, 2015.
Comiso, J. C.: Characteristics of Arctic winter sea ice from satellite multispectral microwave observations., J. Geophys. Res., 91, 975–994, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC091iC01p00975, 1986.
Comiso, J. C. and Kwok, R.: Surface and radiative characteristics of the summer Arctic sea ice cover from multisensor satellite observations, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 101, 28397–28416, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JC02816, 1996.
Comiso, J. C. and Nishio, F.: Trends in the sea ice cover using enhanced and compatible AMSR-E, SSM/I, and SMMR data, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 113, C02S07, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004257, 2008.
Council, A.: Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment 2009 Report, Arctic Council, https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hajo-Eicken/publication/255891922_Arctic_Marine_Shipping_Assessment_2009_Report/links/5ad39ab30f7e9b2859360173/Arctic-Marine-Shipping-Assessment-2009-Report.pdf (last access: 12 March 2025), 2009.
Deemer, G. J., Bhatt, U. S., Eicken, H., Posey, P. G., Hutchings, J. K., Nelson, J., Heim, R., Allard, R. A., Wiggins, H., and Creek, K.: Broadening the sea-ice forecaster toolbox with community observations: A case study from the northern Bering Sea, Arct. Sci., https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2016-0054, 2017.
Drushka, K., Westbrook, E., Bingham, F. M., Gaube, P., Dickinson, S., Fournier, S., Menezes, V., Misra, S., Pérez Valentín, J., Rainville, E. J., Schanze, J. J., Schmidgall, C., Shcherbina, A., Steele, M., Thomson, J., and Zippel, S.: Salinity and Stratification at the Sea Ice Edge (SASSIE): an oceanographic field campaign in the Beaufort Sea, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4209–4242, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4209-2024, 2024.
Environment Canada: Manual of Standard Procedures for Observing and Reporting Ice Conditions (MANICE), Issuing authority: Assistant Deputy Minister, Meteorological Service of Canada, 2005.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In: Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1211–362, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.011, 2023.
García-Reyes, M., Minnett, P. J., Steele, M., Castro, S., Cornillon, P., Armstrong, E., Vazquez-Cuervo, J., Tsontos, V., Cokelet, E., and Wick, G. A.: 2022 Arctic Saildrone Cruise Report, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7709660, 2023.
Gentemann, C. L., Minnett, P., Steele, M., Castro, S., Cornillon, P., Armstrong, E., Vazquez, J., Tsontos, V., and Cokelet, E.: 2019 Arctic Saildrone Cruise Report (Version 1), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5851764, 2019.
Gogineni, S. P., Moore, R. K., Grenfell, T. C., Barber, D. G., Digby, S., and Drinkwater, M.: The effects of freeze-up and melt processes on microwave signatures, in: Microwave Remote Sensing of Sea Ice, Geophysical Monograph Series, 68, 329–341, https://doi.org/10.1029/GM068p0329, 1992.
Greene, C. A., Thirumalai, K., Kearney, K. A., Delgado, J. M., Schwanghart, W., Wolfenbarger, N. S., Thyng, K. M., Gwyther, D. E., Gardner, A. S., and Blankenship, D. D.: The Climate Data Toolbox for MATLAB, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 2, 3774–3781, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GC008392, 2019.
Grenfell, T. C. and Lohanick, A. W.: Temporal variations of the microwave signatures of sea ice during the late spring and early summer near Mould Bay NWT., J. Geophys. Res., 90, 5063–5074, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC090iC03p05063, 1985.
Haine, T. W. and Martin, T.: The Arctic-Subarctic sea ice system is entering a seasonal regime: Implications for future Arctic amplification, Sci. Rep., 7, 4618, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04573-0, 2017.
Heim, R., and Schreck, M.B.: NWS Alaska Sea Ice Program: Operations, Customer Support and Challenges, 14th Conference on Polar Meteorology and Oceanography, Washington US, 22–26 January 2017, https://ams.confex.com/ams/97Annual/webprogram/Paper312501.html (last access: 12 March 2025), 2017.
Helfrich, S. R., McNamara, D., Ramsay, B. H., Baldwin, T., and Kasheta, T.: Enhancements to, and forthcoming developments in the Interactive Multisensor Snow and Ice Mapping System (IMS), Hydrol. Process., 21, 1576–1586, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6720, 2007.
Heygster, G., Wiebe, H., Spreen, G., and Kaleschke, L.: AMSR-E geolocation and validation of sea ice concentrations based on 89 GHz data, J. Remote Sens. Soc. Japan, 29, 226–235, 2009.
Hufford, G.: National Weather Service Alaska Region Sea Ice Program, 3rd Symposium on the Impacts of an Ice-Diminishing Arctic on Naval and Maritime Operations, Annaoplis MD, 9–11 June, 2009, https://www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/star/documents/2009Ice/Day2/Hufford_day2.pdf (last access: 12 March 2025), 2009.
Hutchings, J., Delamere, J., and Heil, P.: The Ice Watch Manual, https://icewatch.met.no (last access: 26 April 2023), 2020.
Ivanova, N., Johannessen, O. M., Pedersen, L. T., and Tonboe, R. T.: Retrieval of Arctic Sea Ice Parameters by Satellite Passive Microwave Sensors: A Comparison of Eleven Sea Ice Concentration Algorithms, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 52, 7233–7246, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2014.2310136, 2014.
Ivanova, N., Pedersen, L. T., Tonboe, R. T., Kern, S., Heygster, G., Lavergne, T., Sørensen, A., Saldo, R., Dybkjær, G., Brucker, L., and Shokr, M.: Inter-comparison and evaluation of sea ice algorithms: towards further identification of challenges and optimal approach using passive microwave observations, The Cryosphere, 9, 1797–1817, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1797-2015, 2015.
Joint, WMO-IOC: SIGRID-3: A vector archive format for sea ice charts: developed by the International Ice Charting Working Group's Ad Hoc Format Team for the WMO Global Digital Sea Ice Data Bank Project, https://www.bsis-ice.de/IcePortal/docs/JCOMM_TR23_SIGRID3_1214.pdf (last access: 13 March 2025), 2004.
Kaleschke, L., Lüpkes, C., Vihma, T., Haarpaintner, J., Bochert, A., Hartmann, J., and Heygster, G.: SSM/I Sea Ice Remote Sensing for Mesoscale Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction Analysis, Can. J. Remote Sens., 27, 526–537, https://doi.org/10.1080/07038992.2001.10854892, 2001.
Kern, S., Lavergne, T., Notz, D., Pedersen, L. T., Tonboe, R. T., Saldo, R., and Sørensen, A. M.: Satellite passive microwave sea-ice concentration data set intercomparison: closed ice and ship-based observations, The Cryosphere, 13, 3261–3307, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3261-2019, 2019.
Kern, S., Lavergne, T., Notz, D., Pedersen, L. T., and Tonboe, R.: Satellite passive microwave sea-ice concentration data set inter-comparison for Arctic summer conditions, The Cryosphere, 14, 2469–2493, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2469-2020, 2020.
Kwok, R. and Rothrock, D. A.: Decline in Arctic sea ice thickness from submarine and ICESat records: 1958–2008, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, 15, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL039035, 2009.
Lavergne, T., Sørensen, A. M., Kern, S., Tonboe, R., Notz, D., Aaboe, S., Bell, L., Dybkjær, G., Eastwood, S., Gabarro, C., Heygster, G., Killie, M. A., Brandt Kreiner, M., Lavelle, J., Saldo, R., Sandven, S., and Pedersen, L. T.: Version 2 of the EUMETSAT OSI SAF and ESA CCI sea-ice concentration climate data records, The Cryosphere, 13, 49–78, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-49-2019, 2019.
Leigh, S., Wang, Z., and Clausi, D. A.: Automated Ice–Water Classification Using Dual Polarization SAR Satellite Imagery, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 52, 9, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2013.2290231, 2014.
Lindsay, R. and Schweiger, A.: Arctic sea ice thickness loss determined using subsurface, aircraft, and satellite observations, The Cryosphere, 9, 269–283, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-269-2015, 2015.
Markus, T. and Dokken, S. T.: Evaluation of late summer passive microwave Arctic sea ice retrievals, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 40, 348–356, https://doi.org/10.1109/36.992795, 2002.
Markus, T., Comiso, J. C., and Meier, W. N.: AMSR-E/AMSR2 Unified L3 Daily 25 km Brightness Temperatures & Sea Ice Concentration Polar Grids (AU_SI25, Version 1), Boulder, Colorado USA, NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/TRUIAL3WPAUP, 2018.
Meier, W. and Notz, D.: A note on the accuracy and reliability of satellite-derived passive microwave estimates of sea-ice extent, CliC Arctic sea ice working group, Consensus document, CLIC International Project Office, Tromsø, Norway, 28 October 2010.
Meier, W. N. and Stewart, J. S.: Assessing uncertainties in sea ice extent climate indicators, Environ. Res. Lett., 14, 035005, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaf52c, 2019.
Meier, W. N., Fetterer, F., Stewart, J. S., and Helfrich, S.: How do sea-ice concentrations from operational data compare with passive microwave estimates? Implications for improved model evaluations and forecasting, Ann. Glaciol., 56, 332–340, https://doi.org/10.3189/2015AoG69A694, 2015.
Meinig, C., Lawrence-Slavas, N., Jenkins, R., and Tabisola, H. M.: The use of Saildrones to examine spring conditions in the Bering Sea: Vehicle specification and mission performance, OCEANS 2015 – MTS/IEEE Washington, Washington, DC, USA, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.23919/OCEANS.2015.7404348, 2015.
Melsheimer, C.: ASI Version 5 Sea Ice Concentration User Guide, https://data.seaice.uni-bremen.de/amsr2/ASIuserguide.pdf (last access: 14 March 2025), 2024.
Melsheimer, C. and Spreen, G.: AMSR2 ASI sea ice concentration data, Arctic, version 5.4 (NetCDF) (July 2012–December 2018), PANGAEA [data set], https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.898399, 2019.
Moore, S.: Marine Mammal Watch, Northern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea, July, 2016, Arctic Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.18739/A27P8TD2J, 2019a.
Moore, S.: Marine Mammal Watch, Northern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea, August–September, 2017, Arctic Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.18739/A25Q4RM2M, 2019b.
Moore, S. E. and Grebmeier, J. M.: The distributed biological observatory: Linking physics to biology in the Pacific Arctic region + supplementary file (see article tools), Arctic, 71, 5, https://doi.org/10.14430/arctic4606, 2018.
Mordy, C. W., Cokelet, E. D., Robertis, A. D., Jenkins, R., Kuhn, C. E., Lawrence-Slavas, N., Berchok, C. L., Crance, J. L., Sterling, J. T., Cross, J. N., Stabeno, P. J., Meinig, C., Tabisola, H. M., Burgess, W., and Wangen, I.: Advances in Ecosystem Research: Saildrone Surveys of Oceanography, Fish, and Marine Mammals in the Bering Sea, Oceanography, 30, 113–115, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2017.230, 2017.
Pacini, A., Steele, M., and Schreck, M. B.: Gridded Alaska Sea Ice Program ice concentration data, 2007–2022, Arctic Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.18739/A28G8FK4F, 2025.
Perovich, D., Meier, W., Tschudi, M., Hendricks, S., Petty, A. A., Divine, D., Farrell, S., Gerland, S., Haas, C., Kaleschke, L., Pavlova, O., Ricker, R., Tian-Kunze, X., Webster, M., and Wood, K.: NOAA Arctic Report Card 2020, https://doi.org/10.25923/n170-9h57, 2020.
Polashenski, C.: Underway Sea Ice Observations during SUBICE 2014, Arctic Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.18739/A2416T03D, 2016.
Rösel, A., Kaleschke, L., and Birnbaum, G.: Melt ponds on Arctic sea ice determined from MODIS satellite data using an artificial neural network, The Cryosphere, 6, 431–446, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-431-2012, 2012.
Sammut, C. and Webb, G. I. (Eds.): Encyclopedia of Machine Learning, Springer Science & Business Media, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30164-8, 2011.
Serreze, M. C. and Stroeve, J.: Arctic sea ice trends, variability and implications for seasonal ice forecasting, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 373, 20140159, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0159, 2015.
Spreen, G., Kaleschke, L., and Heygster, G.: Sea ice remote sensing using AMSR-E 89-GHz channels, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 113, C2, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003384, 2008.
Steele, M. and Ermold, W.: Loitering of the retreating sea ice edge in the Arctic Seas, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120, 7699–7721, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC011182, 2015.
Steffen, K. and Schweiger, A.: NASA team algorithm for sea ice concentration retrieval from Defense Meteorological Satellite Program special sensor microwave imager: comparison with Landsat satellite imagery, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 21971–21987, https://doi.org/10.1029/91jc02334, 1991.
Stroeve, J. C., Jenouvrier, S., Campbell, G. G., Barbraud, C., and Delord, K.: Mapping and assessing variability in the Antarctic marginal ice zone, pack ice and coastal polynyas in two sea ice algorithms with implications on breeding success of snow petrels, The Cryosphere, 10, 1823–1843, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1823-2016, 2016.
Strong, C.: Atmospheric influence on Arctic marginal ice zone position and width in the Atlantic sector, February–April 1979–2010, Clim. Dynam., 39, 3091–3102, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1356-6, 2012.
Strong, C. and Rigor, I. G.: Arctic marginal ice zone trending wider in summer and narrower in winter, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 4864–4868, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50928, 2013.
Strong, C., Foster, D., Cherkaev, E., Eisenman, I., and Golden, K. M.: On the Definition of Marginal Ice Zone Width, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 34, 1565–1584, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-16-0171.1, 2017.
Thomson, J.: SASSIE Arctic Field Campaign Wave Glider Data Fall 2022. Ver. 1, PO.DAAC, CA, USA [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/SASSIE-GLID2, 2023.
U.S. National Ice Center: IMS Daily Northern Hemisphere Snow and Ice Analysis at 1 km, 4 km, and 24 km Resolutions, Version 1, Boulder, Colorado USA, National Snow and Ice Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.7265/N52R3PMC, 2008.
U.S. National Ice Center: U.S. National Ice Center Arctic and Antarctic Sea Ice Concentration and Climatologies in Gridded Format, Version 1, Boulder, Colorado USA, NSIDC: National Snow and Ice Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.7265/46cc-3952, 2020.
U.S. National Ice Center, Fetterer, F., Savoie, M., Helfrich, S., and Clemente-Colón, P.: Multisensor Analyzed Sea Ice Extent – Northern Hemisphere (MASIE-NH) (G02186, Version 1), Boulder, Colorado USA, National Snow and Ice Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.7265/N5GT5K3K, 2010.
Wiebe, H., Heygster, G. and Markus, T.: Comparison of the ASI ice concentration algorithm with Landsat-7 ETM+ and SAR imagery, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 47, 3008–3015, 2009.
Worby, A. P. and Allison, I. A.: A technique for making ship-based observations of Antarctic sea ice thickness and characteristics – Part I: Observational Techniques and Results, Research Report No. 14, Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 1999.
Worby, A. P. and Comiso, J. C.: Studies of the Antarctic sea ice edge and ice extent from satellite and ship observations, Remote Sens. Environ., 92, 98–111, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2004.05.007, 2004.
Worby, A. P. and Dirita, V.: A technique for making ship-based observations of Antarctic sea-ice thickness and characteristics – Part II: User Operating Manual, Research Report No. 14, Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 1999
World Meteorological Organization (WMO): WMO Sea-Ice Nomenclature. Volume 1 – Terminology and Codes, Volume II – Illustrated Glossary, Volume III – International System of Sea-Ice Symbols, Fifth Session of Joint Commission on Marine Meteorology (JCOMM) Expert Team on Sea Ice, WMO Publication No. 259, 2014.
Zwally, H. J., Parkinson, C. L., and Comiso, J. C.: Variability of Antarctic Sea Ice: and Changes in Carbon Dioxide, Science, 220, 1005–1012, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.220.4601.1005, 1983.
Short summary
While sea ice concentration data are critically important for climate research, obtaining high-resolution data remains a challenge. Here we present and validate the US National Weather Service Alaska Sea Ice Program (ASIP) ice maps. These maps are shown to be highly accurate when compared to in situ observations and to outperform a passive-microwave-based product, especially at low concentrations. Therefore, ASIP data provide an exciting new tool to study ice conditions in the Pacific Arctic.
While sea ice concentration data are critically important for climate research, obtaining...
