Articles | Volume 10, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-511-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-511-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
04 Mar 2016
Research article |
| 04 Mar 2016
Using a fixed-wing UAS to map snow depth distribution: an evaluation at peak accumulation
Carlo De Michele
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
Francesco Avanzi
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
Daniele Passoni
University of Genova, Department of Civil, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Via Montallegro 1, 16145 Genoa, Italy
Riccardo Barzaghi
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
Livio Pinto
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
Paolo Dosso
Studio di Ingegneria Terradat, Paderno Dugnano, Italy
Antonio Ghezzi
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
Roberto Gianatti
a2a Group, Grosio, Italy
Giacomo Della Vedova
a2a Group, Grosio, Italy
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77 citations as recorded by crossref.
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- Experimental measurements for improved understanding and simulation of snowmelt events in the Western Tatra Mountains P. Krajčí et al. https://doi.org/10.1515/johh-2016-0038
- Automated Snow Extent Mapping Based on Orthophoto Images from Unmanned Aerial Vehicles T. Niedzielski et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-018-1843-8
- Intercomparison of UAV platforms for mapping snow depth distribution in complex alpine terrain J. Revuelto et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2021.103344
- Unpiloted Aerial Vehicle Retrieval of Snow Depth Over Freshwater Lake Ice Using Structure From Motion G. Gunn et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2021.675846
- Application of Low-Cost UASs and Digital Photogrammetry for High-Resolution Snow Depth Mapping in the Arctic E. Cimoli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9111144
- Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Hydrology and Water Management: Applications, Challenges, and Perspectives B. Acharya et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021WR029925
- Snow depth time series retrieval by time-lapse photography: Finnish and Italian case studies M. Bongio et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-369-2021
- Snow depth mapping with unpiloted aerial system lidar observations: a case study in Durham, New Hampshire, United States J. Jacobs et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1485-2021
- Quality Assessment of DSMs Produced from UAV Flights Georeferenced with On-Board RTK Positioning G. Forlani et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10020311
- Light and Shadow in Mapping Alpine Snowpack With Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in the Absence of Ground Control Points J. Revuelto et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028980
- Comparing high-resolution snow mapping approaches in palsa mires: UAS lidar vs. modelling A. Störmer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-3949-2025
- Learning about precipitation lapse rates from snow course data improves water balance modeling F. Avanzi et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-2109-2021
- Assessing the seasonal evolution of snow depth spatial variability and scaling in complex mountain terrain Z. Miller et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4907-2022
- Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Shallow Snow Depth Measured Using UAV-Based Photogrammetry S. Lee et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13040828
- Mapping snow depth in open alpine terrain from stereo satellite imagery R. Marti et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1361-2016
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- A Comparative Analysis of UAV-RTK and UAV-PPK Methods in Mapping Different Surface Types R. EKER et al. https://doi.org/10.33904/ejfe.938067
- Mapping snow depth and spatial variability using SFM photogrammetry of UAV images over rugged mountainous regions of the Western Himalaya S. Dewali et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2022.2127923
- Improving the snowpack monitoring in the mountainous areas of Sweden from space: a machine learning approach J. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abfe8d
- Towards a webcam-based snow cover monitoring network: methodology and evaluation C. Portenier et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1409-2020
- Accounting for permafrost creep in high-resolution snow depth mapping by modelling sub-snow ground deformation J. Goetz et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111275
- Real-Time Alpine Measurement System Using Wireless Sensor Networks S. Malek et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s17112583
- Drones in carbonate geology: Opportunities and challenges, and application in diagenetic dolomite geobody mapping M. Madjid et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.02.002
- Image acquisition effects on Unmanned Air Vehicle snow depth retrievals A. Tekeli & S. Dönmez https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-380-81-2018
- Improving sub-canopy snow depth mapping with unmanned aerial vehicles: lidar versus structure-from-motion techniques P. Harder et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1919-2020
- Quantifying Uncertainties in Snow Depth Mapping From Structure From Motion Photogrammetry in an Alpine Area J. Goetz & A. Brenning https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR025251
- Application of Fixed-Wing UAV-Based Photogrammetry Data for Snow Depth Mapping in Alpine Conditions M. Masný et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones5040114
- Multitemporal Accuracy and Precision Assessment of Unmanned Aerial System Photogrammetry for Slope-Scale Snow Depth Maps in Alpine Terrain M. Adams et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-017-1748-y
- Albedo change from snow algae blooms can contribute substantially to snow melt in the North Cascades, USA S. Healy & A. Khan https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00768-8
- Measuring the spatiotemporal variability in snow depth in subarctic environments using UASs – Part 1: Measurements, processing, and accuracy assessment A. Rauhala et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4343-2023
- Accuracy of snow depth estimation in mountain and prairie environments by an unmanned aerial vehicle P. Harder et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2559-2016
- Fully-automated estimation of snow depth in near real time with the use of unmanned aerial vehicles without utilizing ground control points B. Miziński & T. Niedzielski https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.03.006
- Comparing Interpretation of High-Resolution Aerial Imagery by Humans and Artificial Intelligence to Detect an Invasive Tree Species R. Rodriguez et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13173503
- The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for engineering geology applications D. Giordan et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01766-2
- Drone testing for 3D reconstruction of massive mounted skeletons in museums: the case of Mammuthus meridionalis (Nesti 1825) from Madonna della Strada (Scoppito, L’Aquila, Italy) M. Romano et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2021.1975278
- Snow profile temperature measurements in spatiotemporal analysis of snowmelt in a subarctic forest-mire hillslope L. Meriö et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.03.013
- Accuracy assessment of late winter snow depth mapping for tundra environments using Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry B. Walker et al. https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2020-0006
- sUAS-Based Remote Sensing in Mountainous Areas: Benefits, Challenges, and Best Practices D. Burchfield et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/23754931.2020.1716385
- Repeat mapping of snow depth across an alpine catchment with RPAS photogrammetry T. Redpath et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3477-2018
- Geomorphometry today I. Florinsky https://doi.org/10.35595/2414-9179-2021-2-27-394-448
- Spatially continuous snow depth mapping by aeroplane photogrammetry for annual peak of winter from 2017 to 2021 in open areas L. Bührle et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3383-2023
- Recent Advances in Snow Monitoring from Local to Global Scales J. Revuelto et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-025-00207-0
- Combining Daily Sensor Observations and Spatial LiDAR Data for Mapping Snow Water Equivalent in a Sub‐Alpine Forest J. Geissler et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR034460
- Monitoring snow depth change across a range of landscapes with ephemeral snowpacks using structure from motion applied to lightweight unmanned aerial vehicle videos R. Fernandes et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3535-2018
- Mapping snow depth in alpine terrain with unmanned aerial systems (UASs): potential and limitations Y. Bühler et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1075-2016
- Estimating Snow Depth and Leaf Area Index Based on UAV Digital Photogrammetry T. Lendzioch et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051027
- Influence of Block Geometry Configuration on Multi-Image Dense Matching N. Bruno et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153784
- Characterizing the spatial distribution of field-scale snowpack using unpiloted aerial system (UAS) lidar and structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry E. Cho et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-4539-2025
- Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Cryosphere: Latest Advances and Prospects C. Gaffey & A. Bhardwaj https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12060948
- Synergistic analysis of satellite, unmanned aerial vehicle, terrestrial laser scanner data and process-based modelling for understanding the dynamics and morphological changes around the snout of Gangotri Glacier, India P. Dhote et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.108005
- Measurement of snow cover depth using 100 × 100 meters sampling plot and Structure from Motion method in Adventdalen, Svalbard R. Stuchlík et al. https://doi.org/10.5817/CPR2016-2-14
- Snowdrift Landscape Patterns: An Arctic Investigation C. Parr et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR027823
- Monitoring of Snow Cover Ablation Using Very High Spatial Resolution Remote Sensing Datasets R. Eker et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11060699
- A new interpolation method to resolve under-sampling of UAV-lidar snow depth observations in coniferous forests V. Dharmadasa et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2024.104134
- Deep Learning Low-cost Photogrammetry for 4D Short-term Glacier Dynamics Monitoring F. Ioli et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-023-00272-w
- Surface Reflectance and Sun-Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy Measurements Using a Small Hyperspectral UAS R. Garzonio et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9050472
- Direct photogrammetry with multispectral imagery for UAV-based snow depth estimation K. Maier et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2022.01.020
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- Investigating the development of shallow snowpacks on arable land, using comprehensive field observations and spatially distributed snow modelling T. Starkloff et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2017.269
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- Aerial and UAV Images for Photogrammetric Analysis of Belvedere Glacier Evolution in the Period 1977–2019 C. De Gaetani et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183787
- Tundra shrub expansion may amplify permafrost thaw by advancing snowmelt timing E. Wilcox et al. https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2018-0028
- Structure from Motion of Multi-Angle RPAS Imagery Complements Larger-Scale Airborne Lidar Data for Cost-Effective Snow Monitoring in Mountain Forests P. Broxton & W. van Leeuwen https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12142311
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- Measuring the spatiotemporal variability in snow depth in subarctic environments using UASs – Part 2: Snow processes and snow–canopy interactions L. Meriö et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4363-2023
- Experimental measurements for improved understanding and simulation of snowmelt events in the Western Tatra Mountains P. Krajčí et al. https://doi.org/10.1515/johh-2016-0038
- Automated Snow Extent Mapping Based on Orthophoto Images from Unmanned Aerial Vehicles T. Niedzielski et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-018-1843-8
- Intercomparison of UAV platforms for mapping snow depth distribution in complex alpine terrain J. Revuelto et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2021.103344
- Unpiloted Aerial Vehicle Retrieval of Snow Depth Over Freshwater Lake Ice Using Structure From Motion G. Gunn et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2021.675846
- Application of Low-Cost UASs and Digital Photogrammetry for High-Resolution Snow Depth Mapping in the Arctic E. Cimoli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9111144
- Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Hydrology and Water Management: Applications, Challenges, and Perspectives B. Acharya et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021WR029925
- Snow depth time series retrieval by time-lapse photography: Finnish and Italian case studies M. Bongio et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-369-2021
- Snow depth mapping with unpiloted aerial system lidar observations: a case study in Durham, New Hampshire, United States J. Jacobs et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1485-2021
- Quality Assessment of DSMs Produced from UAV Flights Georeferenced with On-Board RTK Positioning G. Forlani et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10020311
- Light and Shadow in Mapping Alpine Snowpack With Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in the Absence of Ground Control Points J. Revuelto et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028980
- Comparing high-resolution snow mapping approaches in palsa mires: UAS lidar vs. modelling A. Störmer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-3949-2025
- Learning about precipitation lapse rates from snow course data improves water balance modeling F. Avanzi et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-2109-2021
- Assessing the seasonal evolution of snow depth spatial variability and scaling in complex mountain terrain Z. Miller et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4907-2022
- Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Shallow Snow Depth Measured Using UAV-Based Photogrammetry S. Lee et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13040828
- Mapping snow depth in open alpine terrain from stereo satellite imagery R. Marti et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1361-2016
- Autonomous and efficient large-scale snow avalanche monitoring with an Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) J. Lim et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-26-411-2026
- A Comparative Analysis of UAV-RTK and UAV-PPK Methods in Mapping Different Surface Types R. EKER et al. https://doi.org/10.33904/ejfe.938067
- Mapping snow depth and spatial variability using SFM photogrammetry of UAV images over rugged mountainous regions of the Western Himalaya S. Dewali et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2022.2127923
- Improving the snowpack monitoring in the mountainous areas of Sweden from space: a machine learning approach J. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abfe8d
- Towards a webcam-based snow cover monitoring network: methodology and evaluation C. Portenier et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1409-2020
- Accounting for permafrost creep in high-resolution snow depth mapping by modelling sub-snow ground deformation J. Goetz et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111275
- Real-Time Alpine Measurement System Using Wireless Sensor Networks S. Malek et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s17112583
- Drones in carbonate geology: Opportunities and challenges, and application in diagenetic dolomite geobody mapping M. Madjid et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.02.002
- Image acquisition effects on Unmanned Air Vehicle snow depth retrievals A. Tekeli & S. Dönmez https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-380-81-2018
- Improving sub-canopy snow depth mapping with unmanned aerial vehicles: lidar versus structure-from-motion techniques P. Harder et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1919-2020
- Quantifying Uncertainties in Snow Depth Mapping From Structure From Motion Photogrammetry in an Alpine Area J. Goetz & A. Brenning https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR025251
- Application of Fixed-Wing UAV-Based Photogrammetry Data for Snow Depth Mapping in Alpine Conditions M. Masný et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones5040114
- Multitemporal Accuracy and Precision Assessment of Unmanned Aerial System Photogrammetry for Slope-Scale Snow Depth Maps in Alpine Terrain M. Adams et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-017-1748-y
- Albedo change from snow algae blooms can contribute substantially to snow melt in the North Cascades, USA S. Healy & A. Khan https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00768-8
- Measuring the spatiotemporal variability in snow depth in subarctic environments using UASs – Part 1: Measurements, processing, and accuracy assessment A. Rauhala et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4343-2023
- Accuracy of snow depth estimation in mountain and prairie environments by an unmanned aerial vehicle P. Harder et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2559-2016
- Fully-automated estimation of snow depth in near real time with the use of unmanned aerial vehicles without utilizing ground control points B. Miziński & T. Niedzielski https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.03.006
- Comparing Interpretation of High-Resolution Aerial Imagery by Humans and Artificial Intelligence to Detect an Invasive Tree Species R. Rodriguez et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13173503
- The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for engineering geology applications D. Giordan et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01766-2
- Drone testing for 3D reconstruction of massive mounted skeletons in museums: the case of Mammuthus meridionalis (Nesti 1825) from Madonna della Strada (Scoppito, L’Aquila, Italy) M. Romano et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2021.1975278
- Snow profile temperature measurements in spatiotemporal analysis of snowmelt in a subarctic forest-mire hillslope L. Meriö et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.03.013
- Accuracy assessment of late winter snow depth mapping for tundra environments using Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry B. Walker et al. https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2020-0006
- sUAS-Based Remote Sensing in Mountainous Areas: Benefits, Challenges, and Best Practices D. Burchfield et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/23754931.2020.1716385
- Repeat mapping of snow depth across an alpine catchment with RPAS photogrammetry T. Redpath et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3477-2018
- Geomorphometry today I. Florinsky https://doi.org/10.35595/2414-9179-2021-2-27-394-448
- Spatially continuous snow depth mapping by aeroplane photogrammetry for annual peak of winter from 2017 to 2021 in open areas L. Bührle et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3383-2023
- Recent Advances in Snow Monitoring from Local to Global Scales J. Revuelto et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-025-00207-0
- Combining Daily Sensor Observations and Spatial LiDAR Data for Mapping Snow Water Equivalent in a Sub‐Alpine Forest J. Geissler et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR034460
- Monitoring snow depth change across a range of landscapes with ephemeral snowpacks using structure from motion applied to lightweight unmanned aerial vehicle videos R. Fernandes et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3535-2018
- Mapping snow depth in alpine terrain with unmanned aerial systems (UASs): potential and limitations Y. Bühler et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1075-2016
- Estimating Snow Depth and Leaf Area Index Based on UAV Digital Photogrammetry T. Lendzioch et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051027
- Influence of Block Geometry Configuration on Multi-Image Dense Matching N. Bruno et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153784
- Characterizing the spatial distribution of field-scale snowpack using unpiloted aerial system (UAS) lidar and structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry E. Cho et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-4539-2025
- Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Cryosphere: Latest Advances and Prospects C. Gaffey & A. Bhardwaj https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12060948
- Synergistic analysis of satellite, unmanned aerial vehicle, terrestrial laser scanner data and process-based modelling for understanding the dynamics and morphological changes around the snout of Gangotri Glacier, India P. Dhote et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.108005
- Measurement of snow cover depth using 100 × 100 meters sampling plot and Structure from Motion method in Adventdalen, Svalbard R. Stuchlík et al. https://doi.org/10.5817/CPR2016-2-14
- Snowdrift Landscape Patterns: An Arctic Investigation C. Parr et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR027823
- Monitoring of Snow Cover Ablation Using Very High Spatial Resolution Remote Sensing Datasets R. Eker et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11060699
- A new interpolation method to resolve under-sampling of UAV-lidar snow depth observations in coniferous forests V. Dharmadasa et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2024.104134
- Deep Learning Low-cost Photogrammetry for 4D Short-term Glacier Dynamics Monitoring F. Ioli et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-023-00272-w
- Surface Reflectance and Sun-Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy Measurements Using a Small Hyperspectral UAS R. Garzonio et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9050472
- Direct photogrammetry with multispectral imagery for UAV-based snow depth estimation K. Maier et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2022.01.020
- Mapping Glacier Ablation With a UAV in the North Cascades: A Structure-from-Motion Approach S. Healy & A. Khan https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2021.764765
- Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Based Structure from Motion Technique for Precise Snow Depth Retrieval—Implication for Optimal Ground Control Point Deployment Strategy S. Shu et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092297
- Investigating the development of shallow snowpacks on arable land, using comprehensive field observations and spatially distributed snow modelling T. Starkloff et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2017.269
- Centimetric Accuracy in Snow Depth Using Unmanned Aerial System Photogrammetry and a MultiStation F. Avanzi et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10050765
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Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 02 Jul 2026
Short summary
We investigate snow depth distribution at peak accumulation over a small Alpine area using photogrammetry-based surveys with a fixed wing unmanned aerial system. Results reveal that UAS estimations of point snow depth present an average difference with reference to manual measurements equal to -0.073 m. Moreover, in this case study snow depth standard deviation (hence coefficient of variation) increases with decreasing cell size, but it stabilizes for resolutions smaller than 1 m.
We investigate snow depth distribution at peak accumulation over a small Alpine area using...
