Articles | Volume 17, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1675-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1675-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
17 Apr 2023
Research article |
| 17 Apr 2023
| 17 Apr 2023
Characteristics of the 1979–2020 Antarctic firn layer simulated with IMAU-FDM v1.2A
Sanne B. M. Veldhuijsen
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
Willem Jan van de Berg
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
Max Brils
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
Peter Kuipers Munneke
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
Michiel R. van den Broeke
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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28 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Improving the Spatial Resolution of GRACE-Derived Ice Sheet Mass Change in Antarctica Z. Shi et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2024.3511944
- Antarctic Ice Sheet grounding line discharge from 1996–2024 B. Davison et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-3259-2025
- Widespread increase in discharge from west Antarctic Peninsula glaciers since 2018 B. Davison et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3237-2024
- Mass changes of the Antarctic Peninsula ice sheet and peripheral glaciers, 2007–2021 M. Bernat et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-3025-2026
- Combined GNSS reflectometry–refractometry for automated and continuous in situ surface mass balance estimation on an Antarctic ice shelf L. Steiner et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4903-2023
- Modelled dynamics of floating and grounded icebergs, with application to the Amundsen Sea Y. Kostov et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-135-2026
- Channelized melt beneath Antarctic ice shelves previously underestimated A. Zinck et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-025-02537-1
- The influence of firn layer material properties on surface crevasse propagation in glaciers and ice shelves T. Clayton et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5573-2024
- <bold>2002</bold><bold>~</bold><bold>2023</bold>年南极冰盖及威尔克斯<bold>-</bold>玛丽皇后地四大冰川流域时空质量变化特性分析 微. 王 et al. https://doi.org/10.1360/N072024-0231
- Unveiling spatial variability within the Dotson Melt Channel through high-resolution basal melt rates from the Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica A. Zinck et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3785-2023
- FDTransformer: A firn density prediction framework combining a self-attention transformer network with firn densification physics X. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2025.113869
- Variability in ice shelf basal melting in the Amundsen Sea Embayment from 2019 to 2023 X. Meng et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ade729
- Firn on ice sheets C. Amory et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-023-00507-9
- Spatiotemporal mass change rate analysis from 2002 to 2023 over the Antarctic Ice Sheet and four glacier basins in Wilkes-Queen Mary Land W. Wang et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-024-1517-1
- Machine learning of Antarctic firn density by combining radiometer and scatterometer remote-sensing data W. Li et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-37-2025
- Globally consistent estimates of high-resolution Antarctic ice mass balance and spatially resolved glacial isostatic adjustment M. Willen et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-775-2024
- Annual mass budget of Antarctic ice shelves from 1997 to 2021 B. Davison et al. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi0186
- Satellite data reveal details of glacial isostatic adjustment in the Amundsen Sea Embayment, West Antarctica M. Willen et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2213-2025
- Spatio-temporal melt and basal channel evolution on Pine Island Glacier ice shelf from CryoSat-2 K. Lowery et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-4893-2025
- Antarctic-wide ice-shelf firn emulation reveals robust future firn air depletion signal for the Antarctic Peninsula D. Dunmire et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01255-4
- The influence of subglacial lake discharge on Thwaites Glacier ice-shelf melting and grounding-line retreat N. Gourmelen et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-57417-1
- Partitioning the drivers of Antarctic glacier mass balance (2003–2020) using satellite observations and a regional climate model B. Kim et al. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2322622121
- Improving the representation of the ice-sheet contribution to sea level within a global inversion framework M. Willen et al. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggag059
- ST-SOLOv2: Tracing Depth Hoar Layers in Antarctic Ice Sheet From Airborne Radar Echograms With Deep Learning C. Peng et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2024.3480698
- Ocean-induced weakening of George VI Ice Shelf, West Antarctica A. Zinck et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-5509-2025
- How well can satellite altimetry and firn models resolve Antarctic firn thickness variations? M. Kappelsberger et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4355-2024
- Firn air content changes on Antarctic ice shelves under three future warming scenarios S. Veldhuijsen et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1983-2024
- On the factors and the degree of their effect on subglacial melt and changes in the state of Antarctic subglacial lakes A. Boronina et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2024.2406622
28 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Improving the Spatial Resolution of GRACE-Derived Ice Sheet Mass Change in Antarctica Z. Shi et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2024.3511944
- Antarctic Ice Sheet grounding line discharge from 1996–2024 B. Davison et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-3259-2025
- Widespread increase in discharge from west Antarctic Peninsula glaciers since 2018 B. Davison et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3237-2024
- Mass changes of the Antarctic Peninsula ice sheet and peripheral glaciers, 2007–2021 M. Bernat et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-3025-2026
- Combined GNSS reflectometry–refractometry for automated and continuous in situ surface mass balance estimation on an Antarctic ice shelf L. Steiner et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4903-2023
- Modelled dynamics of floating and grounded icebergs, with application to the Amundsen Sea Y. Kostov et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-135-2026
- Channelized melt beneath Antarctic ice shelves previously underestimated A. Zinck et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-025-02537-1
- The influence of firn layer material properties on surface crevasse propagation in glaciers and ice shelves T. Clayton et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-5573-2024
- <bold>2002</bold><bold>~</bold><bold>2023</bold>年南极冰盖及威尔克斯<bold>-</bold>玛丽皇后地四大冰川流域时空质量变化特性分析 微. 王 et al. https://doi.org/10.1360/N072024-0231
- Unveiling spatial variability within the Dotson Melt Channel through high-resolution basal melt rates from the Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica A. Zinck et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3785-2023
- FDTransformer: A firn density prediction framework combining a self-attention transformer network with firn densification physics X. Zhang et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2025.113869
- Variability in ice shelf basal melting in the Amundsen Sea Embayment from 2019 to 2023 X. Meng et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ade729
- Firn on ice sheets C. Amory et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-023-00507-9
- Spatiotemporal mass change rate analysis from 2002 to 2023 over the Antarctic Ice Sheet and four glacier basins in Wilkes-Queen Mary Land W. Wang et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-024-1517-1
- Machine learning of Antarctic firn density by combining radiometer and scatterometer remote-sensing data W. Li et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-37-2025
- Globally consistent estimates of high-resolution Antarctic ice mass balance and spatially resolved glacial isostatic adjustment M. Willen et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-775-2024
- Annual mass budget of Antarctic ice shelves from 1997 to 2021 B. Davison et al. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi0186
- Satellite data reveal details of glacial isostatic adjustment in the Amundsen Sea Embayment, West Antarctica M. Willen et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-2213-2025
- Spatio-temporal melt and basal channel evolution on Pine Island Glacier ice shelf from CryoSat-2 K. Lowery et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-4893-2025
- Antarctic-wide ice-shelf firn emulation reveals robust future firn air depletion signal for the Antarctic Peninsula D. Dunmire et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01255-4
- The influence of subglacial lake discharge on Thwaites Glacier ice-shelf melting and grounding-line retreat N. Gourmelen et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-57417-1
- Partitioning the drivers of Antarctic glacier mass balance (2003–2020) using satellite observations and a regional climate model B. Kim et al. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2322622121
- Improving the representation of the ice-sheet contribution to sea level within a global inversion framework M. Willen et al. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggag059
- ST-SOLOv2: Tracing Depth Hoar Layers in Antarctic Ice Sheet From Airborne Radar Echograms With Deep Learning C. Peng et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2024.3480698
- Ocean-induced weakening of George VI Ice Shelf, West Antarctica A. Zinck et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-5509-2025
- How well can satellite altimetry and firn models resolve Antarctic firn thickness variations? M. Kappelsberger et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4355-2024
- Firn air content changes on Antarctic ice shelves under three future warming scenarios S. Veldhuijsen et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1983-2024
- On the factors and the degree of their effect on subglacial melt and changes in the state of Antarctic subglacial lakes A. Boronina et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2024.2406622
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 17 Jun 2026
Short summary
Firn is the transition of snow to glacier ice and covers 99 % of the Antarctic ice sheet. Knowledge about the firn layer and its variability is important, as it impacts satellite-based estimates of ice sheet mass change. Also, firn contains pores in which nearly all of the surface melt is retained. Here, we improve a semi-empirical firn model and simulate the firn characteristics for the period 1979–2020. We evaluate the performance with field and satellite measures and test its sensitivity.
Firn is the transition of snow to glacier ice and covers 99 % of the Antarctic ice sheet....
